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| | | 27 November 2009 |
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Although there are differences in the participating countries and in the timing of studies, the PISA results indicate that Scotland's 15 year olds performed significantly better in terms of attainment in mathematics and science than our 9 and 13 year olds did in 1995. As PISA results are similar for reading it seems likely this is also the case for performance in reading.
Scotland was in the top third of OECD countries in all subjects assessed in PISA. Gender differences in student performance were quite low in Scotland with the exception of reading literacy where female students performed much better than male students.
PISA looked for associations between different factors and different levels of student performance. These factors included expenditure on education, school related factors, teaching related factors, student related factors and home related factors. The outcomes of this analysis are illuminating:
Much of the variation in student performance between countries was related to per capita GDP. This relationship is not a direct one but will operate through intermediate variables such as better schools, professionally trained teachers and students from more affluent home backgrounds. Interestingly the actual spend on education in countries has a weaker relationship to student performance, perhaps indicating that better schools and better equipment and resources are less important than other factors.
More than a quarter of students said school was a place they did not wish to go to and the majority of students said school was a place where they felt bored. These responses indicate that efforts need to be made to convince students of the value of their education and to make the school environment a more attractive one for students. This is important as students with more positive views on school performed better in reading literacy.
Head teachers believed that student absenteeism, students' disruptive behaviour and students skipping classes were the main obstacles to learning. Students thought the main obstacle was wasting time at the beginning of lessons while students quieten down. These views are important, as student performance was better in schools where more positive views were held. Clearly the work of the Discipline Task Force will be important in this context.
Students were asked about the support they received from their teachers. Overall this type of support was only weakly related to student performance but in those countries with a higher rating on teacher support the relationship was stronger and significant. It does appear that teachers should be encouraged to continue to provide adequate support for all their students.
Both head teachers and students were asked about the climate in their schools. The views of head teachers were related to student performance on the reading literacy scale, the students' views less so. School climate does seem to be important and measures should be taken to ensure a supportive and encouraging climate exists in every school. The work that continues to be done on improving the ethos of schools is clearly important.
Questions were asked in PISA about schools' infrastructure and their educational resources. The former was not found to be related to school performance but the latter was. Clearly the provision of good educational resources to schools is a significant factor in promoting learning.
The performance of students on the reading literacy scale is higher in schools which have greater autonomy and where teachers are involved with school management. Budgetary autonomy is also positively related to student performance but to a more limited extent. There does seem to be support here for the principle of devolved school management.
Head teachers were asked various questions about teachers' morale and relationships with pupils. More positive responses were associated with better student performance but the relationship was a relatively weak one. These findings indicate that these teacher related factors only influence learning to a limited extent.
The relative effectiveness of competitive and co-operative learning approaches was investigated. The results indicated that both styles of learning were positively related to student performance which suggests that both should be used as opportunities arise. Advice has been issued by HMIE on the need to use a variety of teaching approaches to meet the learning needs of all students.
The relationship between homework and student performance tended to be consistently positive. However, the relationship was stronger in countries where more homework was set for students. This may indicate that a certain threshold of time has to be invested in homework before it becomes fully effective. It appears that the encouragement given in Scotland to homework and supported study has been well directed.
Computers are increasingly being used in school by both teachers and students to enhance learning. The PISA results indicated that there was a high level of student interest in computers, more among male students than among female students, and a majority of students was comfortable using computers. Reading literacy scores were higher for those students most interested and comfortable with computer use, although this may in part be due to other factors, such as more affluent homes providing greater access to computers. However, the findings do suggest that current developments in the provision and use of computers in schools will have a beneficial influence on teaching and learning.
About half of students held positive views about reading and students' interest in reading was associated with better reading literacy performance within countries but not between countries. Interest in mathematics was more varied and was not associated so strongly with students' attainment in mathematics. The time spent by students reading for enjoyment was quite low and almost a third of students said they did none at all. However, time spent reading for enjoyment was positively related to students' performance. This indicates that there is a need to encourage a positive environment with respect to reading for enjoyment as a means of improving reading skills.
In PISA there were differences in performance related to the gender of students. Comparison of the findings with earlier studies seems to indicate that these differences increase as students progress through their education. In PISA female students performed consistently better in reading literacy to a substantial extent. As reading skills are a prerequisite to learning in all subjects the apparent under performance of male students is a cause for concern. In mathematics male students tend to perform better than female students but to a more limited extent. The position in science is less clear cut as there were few significant differences between male and female students. The gender differences in performance between subjects and between countries indicate that different policies and practices could reduce gender related inequalities.
The socio-economic background of students had a major influence on their school attainment. In the UK students in the top and bottom quarters of the socio-economic index differed in performance by more than a proficiency level on the reading literacy scale. Students in the bottom quarter of the socio-economic index were more than twice as likely as other students to be in the bottom 25% on the reading literacy scale. Family wealth was also related to student performance but the relationship was less pronounced. Clearly there is a continuing need to tackle the problems of poverty and deprivation.
In PISA students were asked how frequently their parents communicated with them in a range of different contexts. The responses were used to construct two indices - one of cultural communication and the other of social communication. Both indices were related to student performance on the reading literacy scale although the relationship was stronger for cultural communication. There is a need to encourage these types of parent-student communication to assist in the development of language skills.
Information on their mothers' education was gathered from students. This was found to be related to students' performance on the reading literacy scale particularly for mothers who had completed upper secondary education. As the education of parents increases this is likely to impact positively on the attainment of their children.
In PISA students were asked who lived at home with them as a guide to family structure. About 20% of UK students came from one parent families which analysis showed put their children at a disadvantage in terms of attainment. There is a need to seek ways to facilitate productive home support for children's learning which does not demand more time and effort than single parents can provide.
In PISA students were asked about the possessions in their homes related to classical culture such as books, poetry and art. Such possessions were positively related to students' performance. This relationship is likely to be at least in part due to socio-economic factors. These cultural possessions in the home cannot be equated with the kind of cultural activities on which school curricula are based.
1 Second International Assessment of Educational Progress. Mathematics and Science Around the World. A Scottish Perspective, Research and Intelligence Unit, The Scottish Office Education Department, 1992.
2 Achievements of Primary 4 and Primary 5 Pupils in Mathematics and Science, The Scottish Office Education and Industry Department, 1997.
3 Achievements of Secondary 1 and Secondary 2 Pupils in Mathematics and Science, The Scottish Office Education and Industry Department, 1997.
4 Assessment of Practical Skills in Mathematics and Science, The Scottish Office Education and Industry Department, 1997.
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