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| Involving Civil Society in the Work of Parliaments |
| The third sector and the social economy |
| Stephen Young uses the term 'community-based partnerships' to define those groups that occupy the sector outside of government and profit-driven organisations.41 These groups operate within what has become known as the 'social economy'. The term social economy originated in Southern European countries but has now been adopted by the European Commission which has set up a Social Economy Unit within DG23. The remit of the unit is to prepare policies to promote the range of organisations in the social economy. |
| The social economy is divided in this classification into three families of organisations -co-ops, mutuals, and associations and foundations (see Figure 16). Each of these has its own legal basis and is distinct from organisations working within the mainstream public and private sectors. Two criteria are used to distinguish different kinds of groups within the social economy: the organisation's internal relationships - with its members; and its external relationships - with the market and society. |
| Classification of groups within the third sector is problematic because of their sheer number and diversity. There are various ways of trying to map the voluntary and non-profit sector such as the classification scheme developed by the National Council of Voluntary set out below: |
| Figure 17: Charity Commission Classification System |
|
Beneficiaries |
Function |
Industry |
|
Individuals |
Finance! Resourcing |
Education & training |
|
Institutions |
Provision of buildings / facilities |
Health |
|
Environment |
Provision of services |
Social care and development Accommodation and housing |
|
Representation |
Culture and recreation Religious activities Business Environment and animals General charitable purposes |
| The NVCO classification42 excludes sacramental religious groups and political organisations. Other classification schemes might impose a minimum quality standard of output or a criteria of open membership. The third sector as a whole is not well-mapped or researched, although this is an area that is attracting increasing attention from academics, governments and practitioners. One of the main sources of information, is the research unit established at John Hopkins University in the USA. in May 1990, the unit launched a major inquiry into the scope, structure, history, legal position and role of the non-profit sector in a broad cross-section of nations. The John Hopkins Comparative Non-profit Sector Project provides a valuable insight into the contribution made by the non-profit sector. Although individual organisations are often very small, taken together they command significant assets and mobilise large human resources. Many people are employed by organisations within the third sector and third sector organisations play an active role in the economy - selling products and providing services. |
| A comparative study of four member states carried out by the John Hopkins research unit in 1994 revealed that the non-profit sector contributes to the economy significantly in terms of providing paid employment and in providing social services (see Figure 18).43 |
| Figure 18: non-profit sector contribution to the economy and service provision |
|
country |
% of workforce employed |
expenditure |
examples of social service provided |
| Germany |
3.7% |
42.2bn ECU's |
hospital patient days 40% |
| France |
4.2% |
31.3bn ECU's |
residential care 50% |
| Italy |
2% |
i7bn ECU's |
residential care 40% kindergartens 20% |
| UK |
4% |
36.6bn ECU's |
primary education 22% |
The overall size of the UK voluntary
sector economy is £13.1 billion. General charities employ over 485,000 workers
and benefit from the voluntary work of over 3 million individuals. The Office
for National Statistics estimates that general charities contribute £4.5
billion (0.67%) to Gross Domestic Product, although estimates based on the
inclusion of added value and the contribution of volunteer effort to general
charities through direct service delivery put the figure at 1.89% of GDP.
It should be noted that these figures are for the voluntary sector rather
than for all groups within the social economy. They are therefore likely
to be a conservative estimate of the contribution the third sector as a
whole makes to the economy. As the welfare state comes increasingly under
strain, organisations within the third sector are playing an expanding role
in the provision of social services. A recent study on the social economy
and social inclusion in Lowland Scotland based on evidence from 800 organisations
states that as the public sector has retrenched, the third sector has moved
into areas of service provision that it does not pay the private sector
to exploit. Beyond this, the third sector's unique contributi6n includes:
|
| The third sector and civic participation |
| The contribution of the third sector to the economy in terms of employment and service provision does not, however, exhaust its significance. Taking part in the work of voluntary organisations, NGOs, community groups and so on is a means of actively expressing a sense of citizenship. The European Commission's communication Promoting the Role of Voluntary Organisations and Foundations in Europe states that voluntary organisations and foundations play a crucial role in promoting greater democracy and participation. Gabriel Chanan's 1997 European Foundation study emphasises that for the majority of people, citizen participation begins largely through the community and voluntary sectors. Small autonomous groups and networks provide a stepping stone between the privacy of the household and access to some form of public life. Fostering an active sense of citizenship therefore requires social policy makers to become more aware of and supportive towards local organisations. By building up their capacity individually and through networks, these organisations can provide opportunities for participation at many different levels. |
| In the time-span of this project we have been unable to identity successful models in other European countries of formal structures for involving the third sector within the work of parliaments. However, there are many examples of successful partnerships at regional and local level which involve the third sector and government as key partners. Some of these are discussed below. The scope for including the third sector as a partner in policy implementation is the subject of extensive discussion within the European Union, particularly within the context of schemes for regeneration and programmes for combating social exclusion. |
| 3.4 European Experience of wider social partnerships |
Geddes' research on partnerships
in Europe shows that the impetus for the formation of local partnerships
can come from several sources:
|
| The impetus for the formation of local partnerships has often come from opportunities offered by national or regional government programmes. In the following overview of broad partnerships in Europe, attention is drawn in particular to those partnerships initiated by national or regional governments. |
| Austria |
| There are two main partnership approaches evident in Austria - one within the welfare system and one within labour market policy. Social policy involves close collaboration between the social partners and the government. Under the Austrian Constitution, labour market policy is the responsibility of the Federal government but the welfare system is the responsibility of the nine federal states. Local authorities also have welfare responsibilities and sometimes work in partnership with the public, private and voluntary sectors. |
| Initiatives: In the 1970s Social Services and Healthcare Districts were established initially in the Tyrol and in Vorarlberg in response to the growing demands on welfare associated with demographic change. The Districts were intended to expand and network welfare and health provision, bringing all the relevant partners together including provincial and local government; public and private providers; and the local community. Partnership approaches are now also developing in other welfare fields such as an initiative in Linz bringing different actors together around a 'quality of life' workshop. |
| In the 1980s, as unemployment rose in Austria, a partnership approach also became more evident in labour market policy. Labour Foundations were initiated by the traditional social partners in companies, industrial sectors and in regions. By the end of 1995 there were 43 Labour Foundations involving regional social partners, provincial and local government and the Federal Employment Service. Their objective is to combat unemployment through locally-tailored packages of measures from career guidance and training to support for new business. Socio-economic enterprises have also been established for social groups with particular problems such as the long term unemployed or drug users. Whilst the main promoters of these enterprises have been private welfare organisations, they often involve collaboration with social partners and attract public funding. |
| In Steyr, the Women's Foundation resulted from the initiative of women trade unionists in response to high levels of female unemployment resulting from industrial restructuring. A women's coalition received strong support at regional and national levels to set up a Foundation to promote equality of opportunity and to facilitate the return of unemployed women to the labour market. The foundation is run largely by women (all the members of the executive board are women) and includes partners from the trade unions and regional and local government. |
| The Austrian government now sees European programmes such as NOW and ADAFT as being of major importance to the development of future partnership arrangements in Austria. |
| Belgium |
| In Belgium, the post-war social-democratic consensus has been destabilised by increasing unemployment and declining state revenues leading to serious problems of social exclusion. |
| Initiatives: Programmes to support integrated local development and regeneration are the responsibility of the regional authorities. In 1990, the Hemish government established the Flemish Funds for the Integration of the Underprivileged (VHK) under which 15 municipalities developed multi-dimensional local anti-poverty strategies. The VFIK has now been strengthened and extended as the Fund to Stimulate Social Action (SIF). The traditional partners are given a central role in labour relations and particular attention has been paid to 'at risk' groups in the labour market. |
| European Structural Funds have played an important role in establishing partnership arrangements in Belgium, although ESF initiatives have also highlighted some of the problems of creating effective partnerships since there is a lack of co-ordination between the federal and regional levels of government and between the different linguistic regions. |
| Finland |
| In Finland a tripartite system operates at the national level - a partnership between the government, and the central organisations of the employers and employees for the negotiation of pay, working conditions and related issues. At local level, partnership initiatives are emerging as a result of the restructuring of service delivery. In these partnerships the main roles are played by the municipalities and the voluntary sector. |
| Initiatives: The 'Finnish Slot Machine Association 'is a partnership between the state and voluntary organisations which funds projects at grassroots and local levels. A three year programme has been proposed establishing 20 local partnerships across Finland under the co-ordination of the 'partnership executive group' in the Ministry of Labour. These partnerships would be based on collaboration between the state, the municipalities and the third sector. |
| France |
| From 1945 to the 1970s the centralised state played the dominant role in reconstruction, economic planning and social and urban policy and displayed a disregard for local authorities and the voluntary sector. Trade unions and employer organisations were also relatively weak. More recently scarce resources and concerns about legitimacy have led to the emergence of forms of partnership to complement or replace state or public action. In the 1980s the state decentralised several areas of responsibility to local government and local agencies. This increased local autonomy but also led to a fragmentation of public intervention and power struggles between authorities at various levels. The wider partnership approach was seen as a possible way forward. |
| Initiatives: The Contrat de Ville programme promoted closer collaboration between the regional tier of the state and local authorities within the framework of national social policy through a series of local 'contracts' between the partners. This partnership involves the State (the Regional Prefect); the Regional Council for Nord/Pas de Calais; the Depart-mental Prefect and the sub-prefect in the city of municipal authorities; the Lille conurbation; the Lille Urban Planning Agency; the Communaute Urbaine de Lille; the City of Lille and of local areas; districts within Lille including elected politicians and community councils; and local residents and associations. |
| Germany |
| Germany has a strong tradition of social partnership at national level, regional and plant level between the public authorities and employers and employees organisations. Partnerships at local level are gaining ground in Germany in the face of developing urban and rural crises. Neither the private sector - through investment- nor the public sector -through intervention - are achieving decisive results. |
| The German Women's Council (Deutscher Frauenrat - DFR), the umbrella organisation of nearly 200 nation-wide active women's organisations, has members ranging from women's groups of churches, political parties and trade unions, organisations of professional women (lawyers, medical doctors, tax advisors, joumalists) to single mothers' groups. DFR is also part of the European Women's Lobby and recognised as official lobby at Federal Parliament, |
| Initiatives: Recent national and regional initiatives include the Federal government's 'Action Programme for Investment and Jobs'. Local partnerships concerned with unemployment and social exclusion remain largely dependent on grassroots initiatives (e.g.. Wedding in Berlin and in Wulkow in Brandenburg) and are not generally supported by Federal or regional programmes. The Dortmund Development Centre partnership began with initiatives by trade unions. |
| North Rhine Westphalia - Regional Development Plans |
| So-called 'Regional Development Plans' (REKs) are based upon the concept of regional participation in regional structural policy. This 'bottom-up' approach does not only refer to questions related to legislation; but also to infrastructural, economic development, job market and environmental issues , |
REKs work to:
|
| REKs are developed in the regions with guidance, intensive communication and funds - but not rigid instructions - from government The Land government tries to ensure that - next to the economic aspects - social, cultural, environ-mental employment policy and equal opportunities interests are represented as well. This includes the co-operation of social partners and voluntary associations. |
| The scope of REKs include new technologies, community mobilisation, job market evaluation, women's issues and mainstreaming initiatives, the environment and other cultural factors |
| Ireland |
| The 1980s and 1990s have seen a succession of tripartite agreements in Ireland between the government, employers and trade unions. Social partnership between sectoral interests is at the core of public policy and more recently NGOs have been included in this framework for the first time. Since the mid 1980s the government has made partnership-led local development an integral component of economic and social policy with strong political and administrative leadership from the Department of the Taoiseach. Numerous new structures have been set up at local level including 70 local development boards, 35 local enterprise councils; over 100 local development organisations, 70 community development projects and 4 urban renewal partnerships. EU policies, funding and transnational networks have been highly influential the development of these initiatives. Employer representation has taken place on the basis of a numerical formula agreed at national level between government and the social partners. |
| At national level there is a partnership structure between government, employers and trade unions and increasingly NGOs. A defining feature of local partnerships in Ireland is the involvement of the community sector. Community and voluntary groups view partner-ships as a useful mechanism for accessing resources, Improving the provision of public services, generating economic development, and for dialogue with other interests. But they are conscious of the demands it places on the sector and they voice concerns about the representation of minority interests. |
| Research and technical consultants are seen as having a distinctive role and voice particularly in relation to programme and project support and evaluation and the provision of education and training programmes. They emphasise the importance of the transfer of good practice between local partnerships, and vertical co-ordination between national, county/urban and neighbourhood levels. |
| Initiatives: The Community Development Programme and the local Enterprise Programme are national government initiatives. The Tallaght Partnership is a good example of a partnership which stemmed from the initiative of a combination of several actors including national government and grassroots organisations. The Paul Partnership in Limerick was supported by the EU Poverty 3 programme. This partnership has now become a significant force in tackling social exclusion in Limerick and has had an impact on mainstream national policies and programmes. The commitment to partnership in national policy and the close relationships developed between the EU and government policy and directions and programmes have contributed to the success of such partnerships in Ireland. |
| Portugal |
| Partnership in Portugal has two meanings: parceria (informal partnership) refers to traditions and practices of social collaboration and solidarity among individuals with shared interests and historical roots. partenariado (formal partnership) has only recently emerged as a result of EU programmes and is often perceived as transitional collaboration among the partners in various member states. In the 1960s and 1970s the former kind of partnership was more important in terms of community development, rejecting a centralised corporatist tradition in favour of multidisciplinary activity based in local initiatives bringing together the local population and the public authorities. Portuguese research highlights advantages of partnership in terms of sharing of resources and knowledge, creating trust and influencing national policies but also notes the costs of partnership working, the strings attached to external aid and the danger of a retreat by the state in the area of social policy. A key issue is how to articulate the 'European' concept of partnership with the local rooted traditions of parceria. |
| Initiatives: A national anti-poverty programme was launched in 1990, drawing on the EU Poverty 3 programme. In 1991, a Directorate General of Social Action was created embodying a partnership culture. The Special Rehousing Programme, set up in 1993, made explicit reference to the need for local initiatives to be based on collaboration between central and local public authorities and other interests. |
| Spain |
| Partnership approaches to problems of social exclusion in Spain involve an integration of economic and social factors. Unemployment in Spain is amongst the highest in Europe and the higher visibility of poverty has led to some important policy developments particularly in the field of incomes policy. The minimum income policy pioneered in the Basque country in 1989 has now spread across the whole of Spain. This has advanced partnership relationships in various ways between regional, provincial and local administrations and between economic and social interests. In both the Basque country and Catalonia, minimum income policies have led to the development of 'global' plans to combat poverty and exclusion, drawing particularly from the EU's Poverty 3 programme. |
| Initiatives: The Plan Vasco partnership in the Basque country is an example of regional government leading the way in developing an integrated partnership approach to combating poverty and exclusion. This is a partnership between regional, provincial and local administrations as well as social and economic interest groups. |
| United Kingdom |
| The UK has experienced a more rapid increase in social inequality and poverty than other EU member state. Partnership is seen as an important element in the policy response to problems of poverty and social exclusion and is endorsed across the political spectrum. City Challenge and the Single Regeneration Budget are national initiatives which aim at developing a partnership approach. |
| Initiatives: North Tyneside City Challenge is a broad multi-partner partnership which has five constituencies, including the local community and business with equal representation on the partnership's Board. The partnership has a remit and a level of funding that has allowed it to undertake a wide range of infra-structural, promotional and labour market activities to promote employment and economic development. Local government has become increasingly supportive of a partnership whilst lobbying for greater local democratic accountability. Employer involvement has been strongly advocated but in practice, varies widely from a largely symbolic involvement to a more substantial stake. The voluntary sector is making a growing contribution to local partnership activity supported by the National Council of Voluntary Organisations and local community organisations are now seen as a key element of local partnership in the UK. |
| 3.5 Summary |
| As can be seen from the case studies highlighted above, the term 'partnership' is used to refer to a wide variety of different inter-organisational arrangements and types of collaborative working. There are several dimensions that need to be considered when thinking about the kind of partnership that is most appropriate. |
| Figure 19: Types of Social Partnership |
| The composition of the partnership |
Partnerships in different policy areas will have different
types of organisation. The representativeness of the partners must
be considered: how the partners Will represent the interests of those they
claim to speak for. A partnership board or management committee can
be utilised to secure interest representation:
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| The function of the partnership |
| In some policy areas the main work of the partnership may be to plan services or activities in others it may concentrate on service delivery. There is a distinction between those groups they may want to influence policy and those that can play a role in implementing policy |
| 'Degree' or 'depth' of partnership |
Simple representation in a partnership structure cannot be
taken as an indication of a genuine participation Research done by Hall
et al, based on an examination of successful bids in the second round
of the SRB discerned four types of partnership working:
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