| Executive Summary |
| |
The Project
- This project was undertaken on the basis
of the brief issued by the Consultative Steering Group on the Scottish
Parliament. The project lasted five weeks over July and August 1998.
- The report is divided into 3 main parts.
The first part is concerned with methods by which individual citizens
may influence policy decision-making, the second with social partnership
arrangements in Europe and finally we Summarise some mechanisms used
to involve non-members in the work of parliaments.
|
| |
Part A: Civic Participation in
Policy Decision-Making
- Although the referendum and citizen's
initiative are the most widely used forms of direct democratic control
at a national level their use still remains fairly limited. Nonetheless,
interest in referendums, particularly as a means to enhance democratic
legitimacy, remains intense.
- Referendums should be from 'initiatives'
which are popular votes promoted by petitions signed by a number of
voters. These popular votes can be further classified according to whether
they are 'decision-controlling' or 'decision-promoting'.
- Within Europe a wide range of popular
votes have been experienced. Only Italy and Switzerland use referendums
and initiatives with any great frequency and these are the only places
where electors have the right to demand a country-wide popular vote.
- Referendums appear to suit a more individualistic
citizenry that is no longer as permanently mobilised in collective organisations
but that still follows politics and is willing to become active on an
ad hoc basis around specific issues. However, although direct
popular votes can be used to strengthen democracy they can upset the
balance if used too frequently. A trade off has to be made between the
impact of elections and the influence of referendums.
- A number of innovative forms of citizen
participation, such as consensus conferences, citizens juries, deliberative
opinion polls and citizens panels aim at giving citizens access to information
and a chance to discuss the issues prior to asking their opinion.
- ln a consensus conference a forum
of lay people question experts about a controversial scientific or technological
subject, assess the experts' responses, reach a consensus about the
subject and report the conclusions at a press conference.
- Citizens' juries brings together a group
of randomly chosen citizens to deliberate on a particular issue, they
examine witnesses, deliberate, and then produce a decision or provide
recommendations. The Sponsoring body (a government department, a local
authority or other agency) is usually required to respond, either by
acting on the report or explaining why it disagrees with it.
- Deliberative opinion polling takes a national
random sample of between 250-600 citizens is to discuss and debate a
particular issue. Briefing material is provided and the citizens can
question competing experts and politicians. At the end of the process
the citizens are polled in detail. The resulting survey offers a representation
of the considered judgements of the wider population.
- Citizens' panels are made up of a stable
sample of citizens statistically representative of an area's population.
The panel meets regularly to assess local services and develop views
about future needs and goals. Standing panels can be used to test specific
policy options or proposals or to scrutinise policy implementation.
- When assessing the appropriateness of
a civic participation mechanism the following factors need to be considered:
representativeness, cost, legitimacy, political impact, topic choice,
flexibility, empowerment of citizens, selection of experts, the role
of the media, evaluation procedures and consensus-building.
- Efforts to involve citizens in the consultative,
if not the decision-making, process have tended to occur at a local
rather than at a national level. However effective local consultation
and participation is an essential foundation for nationwide citizen
involvement.
|
| |
Part B: Social Partnerships
- 'Social partnership' can be interpreted
in a number of different ways: from a loose sense of co-operation between
a wide variety of societal groups to a highly specific institutional
structure which brings together government, business and labour.
- Traditional corporatist structures are
only really applicable to those groups that are highly organised and
that have established mechanisms for ensuring representativeness, most
significantly trade unions and employers' federations.
- The 'European social model' is generally
seen as one characterised by social partner-ship and civic inclusiveness,
where the trade unions and employers' organisations are routinely involved
in decision-making. Austria provides the 'classic' example of Strong
corporatist policy-making.
- The nature of social partnership arrangements
between state, capital and labour are influenced by a range of factors
beyond institutional arrangements, such as culture, the dominance of
particular political parties and the economic and social climate.
- 'Corporatist' structures, whilst they
formalise and make more open the process of group participation in government,
have also tended to be rather exclusive. Most partnerships, for example,
do not have formal equal opportunities policies.
- There have been sustained efforts at a
global, European and local level to promote the inclusion of more diverse
groups within the process of government: from prelegislative consultations
to service delivery.
- Increasingly, attention is being drawn
to the importance of voluntary groups, community groups, non-governmental
organisations and non-profit organisations in contributing to the 'social
economy' and in co-operating in local partnership arrangements with
governmental agencies.
- Fostering an active sense of citizenship
requires social policy makers to become more aware of and supportive
towards the community and voluntary sectors. By building up their capacity
individually and through networks, these organisations can provide opportunities
for participation at many different levels.
- The scope for including the third sector
as a partner in policy implementation is the subject of extensive discussion
within the European Union, particularly within the context of schemes
for regeneration and prograrnmes for combating social exclusion.
- Institutional arrangements need to find
mechanisms that can widen the influence of social partners in the pre-legislative
process. For example in the use of sectoral forums, civic assemblies,
task forces and round tables.
- The following issues need to be addressed
in relation to social partnerships: the power balance between different
partners, equality of representation, commitment to compromise and negotiation,
compatibility of objectives and accountability.
- Careful consideration needs to be given
to who is involved in the policy process, how they are
involved and what the objective is. Different groups and subject matter
will require appropriate methods and institutional.
|
| |
Part C: Involving Non-Members
in the Work of Parliaments
- Non-members representing particular interest
groups tend to be consulted on legislation before the first reading
through the relevant Ministry.
- Much involvement of non-members is purely
informal, particularly through lobbying and through the political parties.
Austria does, however, have a more extensive system of involving interest
groups in the legislative process.
- Following the first reading committees
tend to engage in a full consultation procedure. ThIs may include holding
special hearings.
- At a local level in the UK women's representatives
have been co-opted onto parliamentary women's committees.
- The co option of 'ordinary' people or
representatives of equity groups onto commit-tees can be seen as a democratic
measure which allows people who are usually excluded from the policy
process to have a voice. Conversely, co-option may be challenged on
the grounds that community representatives are unaccountable and unrepresentative.
- Guidelines detailing the whole procedure
for submitting views to and appearing as a witness at a parliamentary
committee help to demystify the process and provide improved access
for citizens' wishing to become involved in the work of the legislature.
- The 'rapporteur' system provides a focus
for interest groups to intervene in the work of committees. Sometimes
experts are seconded to act as advisors to rapporteurs.
|
| |
Conclusions
- The full requirements of representative
democracy are not met by elections alone but demand a continuous process
of exchange between those who delegate power and those who exercise
it.
- A number of issues need to be continually
addressed and monitored throughout any participatory process. In particular
we would highlight the need to consider the representativeness of those
involved and the necessity for accountability.
- Successful examples of partnership and
participation draw upon pre-existing networks whose meaningfulness to
those involved is already demonstrable. From this starting point participatory
processes can be further encouraged and developed.
|
| |