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Effective Learning and Teaching in Scottish Secondary Schools: The Sciences

4. STAFFING, ACCOMMODATION AND RESOURCES

"It has been observed that the scientist does not in fact begin his operation in the laboratory. He very often starts with his imagination. That is to say, he engages in a variety of thinking processes which establish his problem for him, and subsequently turns to other processes for verification in his laboratory." ¹⁴

Staffing

4.1 In secondary science departments the teaching of biology, chemistry or physics is carried out by specialists with a university degree or its equivalent in an appropriate subject. The majority of science teachers (70% in chemistry, 60% in biology and 58% in physics) hold an honours degree. In addition, most science teachers contribute to the more general Science courses in S1/S2 and S3/S4. This arrangement points to the need for graduates to have breadth of experience across the science disciplines as well as depth in their own specialist field. Some teachers are qualified to teach more than one specialist science subject, although in practice they are rarely required to do so.

4.2 Graduates are accepted for teacher training in a particular science subject on the basis of two graduating courses in that subject or a related field. Some train in additional subjects; combinations such as physics with mathematics or computing, and biology with chemistry are quite common. The trainee's degree need not be in biology, chemistry or physics, as geology, some engineering subjects and some of the more applied subjects, such as biochemistry or microbiology, can meet the necessary entry requirements. Teachers with a background in applied sciences or industry often bring a wider perspective which provides pupils with relevant subject applications.

4.3 All teacher training courses for specialist science teachers now include a minimum of 60 hours of training to prepare teachers to deliver S1-S4 Science courses. In addition to taking qualifications in specialist subjects a more general teaching qualification (TQ) in Science is available for graduates who hold passes in three appropriate first level science subjects. The TQ Science is rarely taken on its own and only about 7% of science teachers have it as their main teaching qualification. A significant number of graduates cannot be awarded the TQ Science because they hold passes in only two appropriate first level science subjects. This situation is most common amongst honours graduates in specialist disciplines. Both access to, and the role of, the TQ Science should be reviewed.

4.4 During the past decade the supply of science teachers has met the level of demand, though local shortages or surpluses have occurred in specific subject areas. The effects of falling school rolls were offset by the policy of 'science for all' which increased the numbers taking science in S3/S4. This move had least impact in schools where non-certificate Science courses were already well established, but additional science sections were required in many schools. Although individual schools have experienced staffing problems and many have had difficulties in obtaining supply teachers, few posts are available for newly qualified science teachers. Some difficulty of recruitment to teacher training has been experienced, particularly in physics where quotas have not always been reached, perhaps because of the attraction of industry and the declining number of physics graduates.

Table 3: Age Distribution of Science Teachers (%) 1992

4.5 The age distribution of science teachers provides an indication of the degree of stability amongst the teaching force with little recruitment having taken place in the sciences over the last 10 years (Table 3). Overall, biologists are a slightly younger group than the chemists and physicists, reflecting the increasing popularity of their subject over the last 15 years. A drive to recruit more physicists has effected a slight increase in the number below 30 years of age compared with the other two subjects. Early retirals have not significantly reduced the percentage of teachers over 50. The number of science teachers over the age of 40 is high, ranging from 57% in biology to 69% in chemistry. This age distribution is thought-provoking when considered alongside the almost exponential rate of growth of scientific knowledge. Many science teachers in their 40s and 50s are teaching content which they have not covered in their university training, either because it was outwith their specialist field or because new knowledge has been acquired. This problem can arise in fields such as electronics, nuclear physics, biotechnology, immunology, ecology or biochemistry.

4.6 Staff development programmes in the sciences need, therefore, to include specialist subject training in addition to methodology and assessment. Such opportunities would also serve to motivate teachers by providing greater job satisfaction, especially for those who are unpromoted. Staff at universities have begun to meet this need through participating in national and local training which specifically targets the content of new courses. Education authorities also need to address the specific training needs of science teachers in regard to updating and extending their knowledge base of their subject. It is to be hoped that recent changes to the organisation of staff development will extend the range of options available to teachers and give them greater confidence to meet the challenges of new courses.

4.7 Professional training of science teachers continues to be important as syllabuses are reviewed, as technological developments improve and extend the range of science equipment in schools and as new teaching approaches are introduced. In recent years, following national courses, education authorities have given extensive support to staff development needs for Standard Grade, Revised Higher Grade and CSYS. Through the Scottish Council for Independent Schools (SCIS) similar provision has been made for the independent sector. The Scottish Schools Equipment Research Centre (SSERC) has organised and run training courses in the use of science equipment including the new technologies and considerable use has been made of this service by education authorities.

4.8 Keeping their members abreast of developments has been a continuing role for the Association for Science Education (ASE): national and local meetings have given teachers well-organised opportunities to review and discuss current innovations. Liaison groups of teachers and lecturers in universities and colleges have led to very useful meetings where teachers have been brought up to date with developments in their subject. Similar meetings have been organised successfully by professional bodies such as the Institutes of Biology and Physics, the Royal Society of Chemistry and the Scottish Association for Biological Education. For example, the annual one-day conference hosted by the Institute of Physics is attended by some 300 teachers. All of these avenues are extremely important as they allow teachers to exchange pedagogical ideas and techniques and keep abreast of changes in their subjects.

4.9 Technicians provide essential support in any science department. Wide variations in provision occur across the education authorities and, even within an authority, schools are not all given equal support. Sometimes these differences are due to temporary local problems, but too often the implementation of regional policies on technicians has been long delayed. In some regions the jobs of trained science technicians have been extended to include responsibilities across all departments. The rigid application of formulae which relate technician support only to pupil numbers can lead to significant problems when threshold levels are reached. For example, the workload of 2 technicians in a school of 600 pupils is not halved when the roll drops to 599, though strict interpretation of threshold levels can lead to the staffing being cut from two to one. Other factors which might be considered include the number, location and percentage use of laboratories.

4.10 The case for an effective technician service can be argued on the basis of cost savings in repair and manufacture of equipment, and the maintenance of safety standards and requirements. However, the main argument relates to the improvement in the quality of the pupils' learning experience which can be achieved by teachers being able to devote more time to teaching. If the technician service is undermanned, teachers have to direct more energy into maintaining equipment and preparing materials. Recent innovations in science teaching, to promote active learning though greater pupil involvement in problem-solving and practical investigations, together with associated assessments, have increased the need for technician support.

4.11 Technicians in science departments hold a variety of qualifications, including degrees, Higher National Diplomas or Certificates, and Ordinary National Certificates. SCOTVEC has designed Science Laboratory Technicians (SLT) modules with a view to meeting the training needs of technicians across the sciences. The numbers taking an SLT course at Higher National Certificate level have steadily declined from 25 in 1986/87 to 12 in 1988/89. Since these courses are offered in response to demand from education authorities, the recruitment and training of science technicians would seem to be at a low ebb. There is a need for education authorities to ensure that technicians have a suitable career structure and that opportunities for professional development are provided.

Accommodation

4.12 Specialised laboratory accommodation, serviced with water, gas and electricity is necessary for many learning and teaching activities in science. The accommodation ranges from single class laboratories with fixed benches to large open-plan areas with furniture which can be adapted to meet the needs of the teachers and pupils. Views on these different kinds of provision vary, often depending on individuals' own experience of teaching. In some schools, teachers are still coming to terms with how to use existing accommodation to best effect. This uncertainty was noted in one school where:

"In the open-plan areas classes clearly identified with individual teachers and frequently teachers were observed gathering their own group around them for discussion. This was against a background level of noise which was sometimes unacceptable. In these circumstances it would have made sense to take groups of pupils to the single laboratories where they could have been briefed in quieter and more convivial surroundings."

4.13 Although traditionally designed laboratories with fixed furnishings and services do not prevent the use of more pupil-centred methods, modern laboratories which offer greater flexibility are generally more suited to these approaches. They are often equipped with moveable benches and overhead services to allow the teacher to vary the classroom layout to suit particular activities. Where overhead services have been provided and where storage is mainly outwith the laboratory, planners have tended to reduce the size of laboratories. In some cases this has resulted in laboratories which place constraints on safe movement by pupils. An increased emphasis on open-ended practical investigations which require to be left undisturbed for some time and new technology hardware also add to the demands for adequate space in laboratories. Many laboratories require to be refurbished and updated to provide teaching accommodation which meets the demands of new science courses, including modern technology, and which mirrors provision in higher education and industry.

4.14 Most schools are provided with an adequate number of science laboratories, though they were not always sited conveniently. In a few schools, where rolls were increasing, laboratory accommodation was in considerable demand. In schools where rolls had fallen, teachers usually had their own rooms and surplus accommodation was used to good advantage for purposes such as setting up practical investigations and establishing computer or video rooms. Falling rolls had allowed some of the schools which had dispersed facilities to bring science teachers together. A significant minority, however, still had science laboratories dispersed around buildings, sometimes on different floors or in huts. This arrangement often resulted in difficulties in the management of resources, especially where bulky equipment or chemicals had to be moved; in some cases this problem was minimised by duplicating resources, with obvious cost implications. Dispersed accommodation sometimes led to a lack of co-ordination and co-operation between science teachers and this had adverse consequences where multi-disciplinary Science courses were being run. Good departmental documentation, resource lists, management procedures and provision for effective communication amongst staff minimised these drawbacks, reducing potential problems to the level of an inconvenience.

4.15 Although the design of laboratories sometimes placed constraints on the ways in which rooms were used for different purposes, teachers were often able to adopt a variety of methods. For example, pupils were grouped in different ways or organised to carry out different activities at the same time. Even when benches were fixed, it was usually possible to designate areas for practical work or for activities which were more theoretical or book-based. Where schools had large open-plan laboratories designed for two or more classes, it was easier to have areas designated for specific purposes, including a resource base serviced by technicians. Although noise occasionally rose to an unacceptable level, due in part to scraping of stools on wooden floors, teachers often made good use of small rooms or sectioned- off parts of the larger area so that effective teaching could take place in a less distracting environment.

4.16 Pupils moving from primary to secondary schools often have positive expectations of what to expect from a science laboratory. Sometimes they were disappointed by the reality, but many were excited by the range of experiences provided, especially practical work. Good teachers fulfilled pupils' expectations through attractive and stimulating displays of posters, photographs, models, pieces of scientific equipment and other artefacts. The best departments changed displays regularly to reflect current work, and pupils were involved in producing the materials and mounting them. On occasion, wall charts completed by pupils were used to monitor progress through courses so that teachers could identify where individuals or groups had reached. This helped teachers to decide when to extract individuals or groups for direct teaching to introduce new topics or consolidate important concepts.

4.17 A few departments used clippings from newspapers and magazines very skilfully to introduce up-to-date scientific evidence and remind pupils that scientific discovery was an ongoing process. Information about careers in the sciences was often used successfully to stimulate interest and motivate pupils to further study. It was common to find living things available to provide a focus for observation and discussion, though vertebrate animals tended to be fewer in number than in the past. Where pupils were involved in caring for animals, they learned about 'life's great events' and became aware of the need to exercise responsibility over a period of time. Most laboratories carried sets of textbooks and a smaller number of reference books which were consulted by pupils. Library trolleys worked well in many schools. They usually contained a range of graded reference books and scientific magazines or journals chosen for certain courses and were moved from laboratory to laboratory to serve the needs of several classes.

4.18 Many science departments made good use of additional accommodation, such as greenhouses and photographic darkrooms, to extend pupils' experiences. These facilities enabled pupils to engage in practical applications of agriculture, horticulture and photography. Some schools in rural areas had larger glasshouses and extensive school gardens in which pupils were involved successfully in planting, growing and harvesting a range of agricultural and horticultural crops. Other activities included creating and caring for a pond and looking after livestock such as poultry, goats and pigs. In some cases pupils learned about marketing through selling their produce to raise school funds. All of these enterprises added realism to the work of the laboratory.

4.19 Pupils were sometimes taken on visits to museums, zoological and botanic gardens, country parks, local industries and university departments. Such visits allowed them to see science in action and were integrated into courses through sound preparatory and follow-up work which met clear objectives. Some field work took place outwith school grounds, with schools taking advantage of residential centres run by education authorities or other bodies such as the Scottish Field Studies Association. In addition to providing more time, staff and specialised equipment for field work, these residential experiences often helped to focus pupils' attention on issues and allowed them to explore and develop attitudinal objectives.

4.20 Many science departments made good use of staff bases for marking pupils' work and lesson preparation. Well-equipped workshops for technicians were also considered to be important. The introduction of new courses placing greater emphasis on pupil practical activities had increased the need for good quality, centralised storage facilities. In many schools, however, storage space was limited and often widely dispersed. This situation led to resources which were required by several teachers being stored inconveniently within individual laboratories which were heavily used for teaching. In many schools it was difficult to increase the amount of available space but a combination of modern storage systems and good organisation, which included regular review of equipment requirements, reduced the problem.

Safety

4.21 It is a tribute to science teachers that very few serious accidents occur in school laboratories. Most departments had a safety policy which was regularly updated and known to all staff. The policies usually took account of laboratory design and furnishings; electricity, gas and fire precautions; storage and disposal of chemicals; ionising radiation; and biological hazards. Schools and education authorities, supported by agencies such as SSERC, were beginning to carry out risk assessments as required by legislation on the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH). With support from the local authority, many departments had disposed of chemicals now regarded as too hazardous for use in the school laboratory. However, some departments still hoard unnecessary chemicals.

4.22 The vast majority of teachers trained pupils in good working practices, as well as making them aware of potential risks in laboratories. Almost without exception, a sensible set of laboratory rules had been on display and discussed with pupils. Generally, pupils were adequately supervised when carrying out experiments, with good teachers demonstrating safe practice before allowing pupils to proceed. Virtually all laboratories had a first aid kit and an appropriate range of fire-fighting equipment which was checked regularly. On occasion, sand buckets contained cigarette ends and other combustible materials; teachers should ensure that better practice is encouraged.

Apparatus

4.23 In most schools the amount of practical equipment available was satisfactory although it was not always of recent origin, as observed in one school where:

"All the science departments were well equipped, although some of the equipment was coming to the end of its useful life, having provided good service for 20 years."

4.24 Other factors had also led to the need for new equipment. Revised courses have required different items to match changes in content. New technology has created opportunities to take advantage of, for example, microcomputers and interfacing devices, digital electrical meters, lasers and fermenters. In many cases the need for new technology had yet to be fully met in schools. The provision of microcomputers had increased significantly, but few schools had one system per laboratory which would allow teachers to make the computer integral to course work. Changes in teaching methods have also affected requirements. Pupil-centred approaches have increased the need for apparatus suitable for individual use rather than teacher demonstration. On the other hand, individualised learning often reduces the number of each item required because pupils may be working on different tasks. In general, however, greater use is made of individual items of equipment, which increases wear and tear and the need for servicing by technicians.

4.25 The proportion of per capita funds allocated to science departments varied between about 10% and 20% of the total available to the school. In recognition of the need to update equipment in science and technology departments, the SOED made provision for additional funding (see Table 4). The allocation of these funds was left to the discretion of education authorities, though the general intention of the funding was defined as "for the purchase of up-to-date equipment for science and technology subjects intended specifically to meet the needs of Standard Grade". In addition, many science departments had benefited from their school's involvement in the Technical and Vocational Educational Initiative (TVEI), usually in terms of the provision of modern equipment.

Table 4: SOED Funding for Science and Technology

4.26 Science departments have also received some support from industry. At a national level, for example, British Gas assisted in the development of a number of resources for Standard Grade Science, including an environmental monitoring device and computer software. Understanding British Industry (UBI) and British Petroleum (BP) jointly sponsored the secondment of a teacher to prepare materials on the socio-economic aspects of chemistry for Standard Grade and Higher Grade. This led to the production and distribution to schools of teaching units with associated computer software. A consortium comprising Motorola, University of Edinburgh, Compugraphics and Scottish Enterprise funded a project to produce the world's first 'teaching microchip'. These microchips have now been distributed to about 100 schools with a teaching package. Links with local industries have enabled some schools to obtain items such as chemical balances or gas chromatographs. More schools should take advantage of such opportunities by developing links with local colleges, universities, industries and other agencies whose work is relevant to the sciences.

4.27 The SSERC is now a private limited company funded by the Council of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA). It provides a service to schools on all matters relating to science and technological equipment, including safety. Support from the Training Agency from 1988 to 1991 enabled SSERC to move to more suitable premises and extend support to technology as well as science in schools. Throughout the recent period of national developments, SSERC has offered much valued advice on apparatus, experimental work and many matters of safety for SOED, SCCC and SEB. With SOED funding, detailed information on practical issues in the relevant science and technology subjects has been published. SSERC has also made very useful contributions at national and local courses on the suitability of equipment and run specialised training for science teachers and technicians on new equipment and procedures. A bulletin is produced regularly and its usefulness, as well as the general high quality of the work of SSERC, is widely recognised.

Print and Audio-Visual Resources

4.28 Most schools made considerable use of commercial or school-produced worksheets. The quality of these materials was usually satisfactory, though some were dated, but the presentation of the school-produced sheets had improved significantly with the availability of word-processing facilities. Some schools had purchased new commercial schemes for S1/S2 which articulated well with Standard Grade courses; others had decided to wait for the National Guidelines for Environmental Studies 5-14 before committing themselves. At S3 and S4 considerable use was made of packages of learning materials; the production of some of these was co-ordinated nationally by Central Support Groups; others were commercially published. The scale of these materials led to many science departments committing a substantial part of their budget to paper and reprographics, creating an additional problem of how to store the materials. Teachers' expertise in being more selective has improved rapidly and reduced the problem considerably. Commendably, materials have also been widely adapted to reflect the individual nature of each school and its pupils.

4.29 Schools have gradually been building up stocks of suitable modern textbooks. Good departments were also discarding ageing and outdated stock, widening the range of reference materials and integrating these items more fully into teaching programmes.

4.30 Increasing access to video facilities had extended the scope and quality of use of broadcasts and video films. Some of these resources were produced specifically for Scottish science courses. A notable example was the two series of Scottish Television programmes aimed at Standard Grade courses. A Broadcasting and the Curriculum File listing and summarising the content of all available broadcast materials had been distributed to schools. However, little use appeared to have been made of this service.

Making Use of Resources

4.31 All the new science courses have required pupils to work responsibly with modern scientific and technological equipment and in most schools resources were easily accessible to pupils. Many HM Inspectors' reports contained comments such as:

"Apparatus and other materials were organised effectively in laboratories and on trolleys, making them easily accessible by pupils. Trolley-mounted computer systems were used to good effect. Pupils organised themselves well in making independent use of available materials within the resource-based learning scheme."

4.32 Pupils were often observed to exercise responsibility when collecting, handling and returning apparatus and other materials, including books and work cards. In the best departments, kits had checklists which pupils used at the start and end of lessons, reporting missing or damaged items so that appropriate action could be taken. Increasingly, pupils were trained to wash glassware and tidy benches as part of their learning experience. This discipline had the added benefit of ensuring that the next class to occupy the laboratory had a clean working environment and immediate access to the full range of apparatus.

4.33 Microcomputers were used in a variety of ways: to simulate experiments which were too difficult, dangerous or time-consuming; to provide a context for discussion of problems such as coping with a major oil spill; to allow pupils to work individually on self-teaching programs focused on specific learning difficulties; to provide pupils with word-processing facilities so that they could produce reports of investigations; and to interface with other pieces of scientific equipment so that measurements could be made and data logged for later use. Interactive video (IV) and compact disc interactive (CD-I), which allow the learner to interact with still and moving video images and with a mass of data, have great potential for further development in science education.

4.34 All science departments had access to overhead projectors, slide and film projectors and video recorders. These facilities provided opportunities to broaden pupils' horizons. When used skilfully, they offered an excellent means of relating science studied in the laboratory to the real world, including industrial applications and environmental issues. Most departments made satisfactory use of audio-visual equipment. In the best departments teachers had made careful decisions about whether to use chalkboards or overhead projectors; care was taken to avoid pupils having to spend a considerable amount of time copying notes from the overhead projector; and video programmes were watched after careful preparation, with purposeful discussion and follow-up built into the lesson.