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Guide to Transport Assessment in Scotland

PART 3 - THE TRANSPORT ASSESSMENT TOOLKIT - INFLUENCING TRAVEL TO THE DEVELOPEMENT

Location

11.1 Ensuring that the chosen location is appropriate for the type of development is fundamental to promoting sustainable transport and the policy objectives of NPPG 17. Choosing an accessible location will determine whether there is a realistic opportunity for modal shift in favour of non-car access by comparison with similar developments.

11.2 Ideally, the assessment of accessibility by different modes should be undertaken for a number of possible sites before decisions are made on possible locations and site layouts. Local authorities should ensure that sites identified in Development Plans for future development or redevelopment for those activities which generate a significant number of trips are those sites most easily accessible by non-car modes.

Scale

11.3 The scale of the development will also influence travel behaviour. It will determine the size of the catchment area of the site and the likely modal split. Small developments tend to have small catchment areas. In good locations, easily accessible by walking and cycling, these modes could be used for a relatively large proportion of trips.

11.4 On the other hand, the larger a development is, so too is the catchment area and, as a result, the proportion of car trips could increase. Larger developments however, may also provide the opportunity for improving public transport access because they generate substantial passenger movements which make it more economic to provide new public transport services or to divert existing services to the site. It may also be easier to provide improved facilities for pedestrian and cyclist access to larger developments since they have more space available for the necessary facilities.

Density and Mix of Uses

11.5 Planning guidance NPPG 17 calls for the location of key travel generating uses to support more sustainable travel patterns. This requires the maximum use of the most accessible sites and more intensive development at those with good walking, cycling and public transport accessibility.

Mixed-use Developments

11.6 Mixed-use development can also promote sustainable transport, particularly walking and cycling, by encouraging multi-purpose trips and reducing the overall distances travelled by car. For example:

• larger housing developments can be designed to include shops or services within walking or cycling distance;
• larger workplaces can include on-site shops and services, such as sandwich bars, to reduce the need for employees to travel at lunchtime; and
• hospitals and colleges can provide housing for students or key workers within easy walking/cycling distance.

11.7 Mixed-use developments can pose special problems for preparing Transport Assessments, however. Mixed-use development may not lead to less car use however, because people may not use the local services provided. But it does provide opportunities for less car-dependent lifestyles. Calculating catchments and modal split to mixed-use developments will require judgements as to the likelihood of the attraction of the facilities provided on the site.

The Layout and Design of the Development

11.8 The design of all development and redevelopment should give priority to access on foot, by cycle and by public transport (usually bus) wherever possible. It must also provide for access by freight vehicles and private cars since all developments require servicing and are bound to generate some traffic.

11.9 Good design and layout of a development can significantly improve the ease of access by non-car modes. The detailed design will differ with each type of development, the particular site and its setting, but the most important design factors that influence access are:

• the nature of the place where development is to occur;
• how it relates to its surroundings, especially movement routes;
• the network of spaces and movement patterns;
• the orientation and location of buildings within the site;
• the access arrangements within the site;
• the ease of pedestrian access to the site;
• the ease of cyclist access to the site;
• the location of the site with respect to public transport services; and
• the location and provision of parking.

11.10 Detailed design of the development requires:

• The entrance(s) to be as close as possible to pedestrian routes and crossings to allow easy access from both sides of the highway. Entrances should also be sited near to bus stops where there are existing bus services, or to railway stations;
• walking routes to be direct to and into the development, providing safe and secure routes which must be suitable for use by those with mobility impairments;
• links to cycle networks, with secure cycle parking near the main entrance; and
• access by car, including from the car park, not to be given priority.

Promoting Access on Foot

11.11 Walking is the main mode of transport for many people, especially in urban areas. It is the most sustainable mode and requires relatively little investment in new infrastructure to make it attractive. The importance of walking is often understated because the journeys are often short and it is difficult to measure.

11.12 Good access to developments on foot is very important. Walking to a well-sited development can be significant and is also important for longer trips by public transport, which will normally begin and end with a walk. The key measures to encourage walking involve planning and designing pedestrian routes to and within the site.

11.13 It is essential that developments provide for the accessibility needs of the mobility impaired travelling on foot: people who are disabled, carrying heavy loads, escorting young children etc. Around 12% of the population have reduced mobility at any one time (IHT, 1991).

Pedestrian or Access Audits

11.14 Good pedestrian access must be planned and designed into a new development from the outset, in decisions on location, design and layout. Safety, personal security and the needs of those with reduced mobility should be given particular priority.

11.15 Pedestrian or access audits of the proposed development can help ensure access is pedestrian-friendly and provides for those with mobility impairments. Key questions include:

• Is, or could, the development become a significant attractor and generator of trips on foot? (e.g. a college, school or stadium)
• Is the development located on existing or potential pedestrian desire lines? (e.g. between a housing estate and shops)
• What are the likely level of pedestrian flows, at peak and off-peak times? (e.g. a cinema will have a peak flow at different times to most shops)
• What types of pedestrians are likely to use the routes? (e.g. schools will attract young people, hospitals the elderly).

Pedestrian Routes and Footways

11.16 It is important to identify the existing and anticipated desire lines, crossing locations, volume and type of pedestrian activity, to influence the design of pedestrian access to the site.

11.17 Good access routes for pedestrians will:

• comprise a comprehensive, safe, direct, well-signed and well-lit network;
• safely and comfortably accommodate considerable fluctuations in flow levels;
• provide easy access on foot from the site to other major developments;
• provide for personal security;
• have an adequate pavement width (preferably 2.5m but with 2.0m as a minimum) so that pedestrians need not walk on the carriageway, and so those in wheelchairs can use them easily. (High pedestrian flows, for example in shopping areas, will require wider footway provision);
• be adequately surfaced with suitable drainage; and
• avoid additional walking distances, gradients or require pedestrians to walk through car parks or to follow indirect footpaths.

11.18 Some activities will attract significant peak pedestrian flows which will require special design and generous provision of space including:

• public transport interchanges (bus, rail stations);
• educational establishments (schools, colleges);
• leisure activities (theatres, cinemas, night clubs, etc); and
• sports stadia.

11.19 Pedestrian routes must be easy to negotiate by those with visual handicaps or who are wheelchair users as well as those unable to walk easily. People carrying luggage or with prams or push-chairs should also benefit from improvements to pedestrian facilities. This requires adequate pavement widths, dropped kerbs, avoidance of steep inclines, seating at regular intervals etc.

Pedestrian Crossings

11.20 Pedestrian crossings should be planned as an integral part of the development. There are several types (e.g. Zebra, Pelican, Puffin): the appropriate choice will depend upon local circumstances such as accident risk. Crossings should either be raised or include dropped kerbs, to enable use by those with mobility impairments.

Improving Personal Security

11.21 Improving personal security should be given high priority. Fear of crime, particularly personal assault, is a significant deterrent, especially for unaccompanied women, and after dark. The incidence and fear of crime can be reduced by:

• more direct pedestrian routes (e.g. without underpasses, detours etc.)
• improved or additional street lighting;
• increasing visibility and surveillance, by removing obstructions, such as overhanging vegetation, or modifying the alignment of routes so that pedestrians are more easily seen; and
• CCTV in areas such as town centres.

Promoting Access on Bicycle

11.22 Access to a development by cycle will depend on the local topography and climate, the nature of the development, and the culture of cycling in the locality. The potential of cycling is probably greatest for journeys to work and to school, but is also considerable for other activities including sports and leisure, and for local journeys for personal business.

Design for Cycling

11.23 Detailed advice on the design of cycle facilities is provided in Cycling by Design (Scottish Executive, 1999). In order to encourage cycling the following are needed:

• safe cycling routes to the site (both well designed, safe and secure on-road routes as well as off-road routes where appropriate or feasible);
• secure cycle parking and other facilities on the site (e.g. showers/lockers); and
• incentives to cycling (e.g. mileage allowances).

11.24 The appropriate design for cycling will depend on the anticipated number of cyclists, the speed and volume of motor vehicles, the functions of the route and the physical opportunities present. It should also take account of the number of lorries, sight distances, on-street parking, the number and type of junctions and accesses to properties. It is important to consider which routes cyclists will use and whether they can share carriageways safely with other people or vehicles.

11.25 Cyclists can generally mix safely with vehicular traffic at speeds below 30 km/h, and also up to 50 km/h unless there are significant numbers of lorries or child cyclists. With traffic speeds are between 50 km/h and 65 km/h, segregation or additional lane width should be considered; and above 65 km/h, segregation may be regarded as essential (IHT, 1996).

11.26 Possible infrastructure provision includes:

• wider near-side lanes - which assist cyclists' safety, particularly where there are significant numbers of lorries or buses;
• shared bus/cycle lanes - which separate cyclists from general traffic;
• cycle lanes - which should be at least 1.5m wide wherever possible;
• cycle tracks or paths - which provide safe off-carriageway provision by removing cyclists from traffic; and
• shared footways (as a last resort).

11.27 Junctions can be particularly hazardous for cyclists, so it is important they are well-designed. Junction designs that are cycle-friendly are also likely to be pedestrian-friendly. Layouts that place cyclists outside the driver's normal field of view are likely to be hazardous, while those placing cyclists within view tend to be safer. Free-flowing arrangements, particularly near-side turning and merge lanes for vehicles, are particularly hazardous for cyclists. Advanced Stop Lines provide a waiting area for cyclists between two stop lines - one for drivers and one for cyclists, so that waiting cyclists are ahead of motor vehicles and can be seen easily.

Cycle Crossings

11.28 Cycle crossings can improve safety for cyclists and are essential on cycle routes with certain traffic characteristics such as the need to cross heavily trafficked roads. Unsigned crossings will normally be satisfactory on minor roads where two-way traffic flows are less than 400 vehicles/h and can also be used on dual carriageways with flows of up to 1500 vehicles/h, and for single carriageway roads with higher traffic flows that can be divided by a central island. Single carriageway roads with two-way peak flows of more than 1000 vehicles/h require signal-controlled crossings. Where both cyclist and pedestrian flows are high, and the predominant cyclist movement is straight across the road, a combined cycle/pedestrian crossing (Toucan) should be provided.

Potential Conflicts between Cyclists and Pedestrians

11.29 Cycling on the footway is common, and often endangers pedestrians, particularly the elderly and those who are visually impaired. Converting the footway to shared use is a last resort and should only be applied in instances where visibility is good and where no off-road or on-carriageway solution can be found.

11.30 To avoid conflict at bus stops, different coloured cycle lanes can be used at the stop; or rumble strips provided to guide cyclists away.

11.31 Conflict may also arise between motorcyclists/moped users and others, especially if they use facilities provided for pedal cyclists. If there is any possibility of any potential conflict between vehicles and cyclists (or pedestrians), a safety audit should be undertaken (IHT, 1996).

Cycle Parking and Other Facilities

11.32 Cyclists require secure parking. Ideally this should be lockers, but if not cycle parking should be:

• in an easily accessible position;
• well signed and well lit;
• designed for easy parking and release of cycles;
• close to the entrance to the building;
• overlooked from the building windows to promote security; and
• covered (though not to obscure vision from the building).

11.33 Cycling can also be encouraged by providing showers and changing facilities, for example in work places; and creating a culture where cycling is encouraged is important. Financial inducements, such as cycle purchase loans and cycle mileage allowances, will help support physical measures in encouraging cycling.

Promoting Public Transport Access

11.34 For many developments public transport, usually buses, will be the main potential alternative to the private car, since many visitors will need to travel relatively long distances and are therefore less likely to walk or cycle. Only large developments are likely to lead to the need to increase rail provision (although improving walking access, cycling links and bus links to rail stations may be required for many smaller sites).

11.35 Good location is the key to promoting public transport use, but its provision (and use) can also be encouraged through better information and awareness, good layout, bus priority measures etc.

11.36 New developments, particularly larger ones generating longer journeys, may provide the opportunity to improve public transport services or add new ones. The aim should be to provide good quality services which people will want to use. Details are provided in IHT (1999). Important features include:

• a network that serves people's travel needs effectively;
• safe and accessible stations and stops, with easy access for the mobility impaired;
• services which operate at suitable times;
• convenient and useful information for potential users; and
• good quality vehicles and infrastructure.

11.37 To serve a site properly, public transport must serve areas from which people wish to travel to the site. A public transport travel time assessment can help establish the potential demand. Ideally services should link to centres where other public transport services can be accessed and park and ride sites.

Public Transport Information

11.38 Good information is essential if people are to choose to travel by public transport. Clear and easy to use timetables, route maps, and area maps are the simplest and most convenient sources, while telephone information centres and the Internet can provide more detailed and extensive information. The PTI (Public Transport Information) project will, in due course, provide up-to-date on-line information.

11.39 Real time information can be displayed at bus stops, and railway stations. These display the time to wait for the next bus on each service using the stop, or the next few trains. Real time bus information can also be displayed in large supermarkets or superstores, which are open for most of the hours that buses operate. A real time information display might be an appropriate item for funding by a developer through a planning obligation. Where a real time system is not appropriate, perhaps due to cost, timetable based information screens may be considered.

Timing of Public Transport Services

11.40 As far as possible, services need to be co-ordinated with the activity they serve. This is particularly important for infrequent services (less than every 20 minutes). Services that leave too late for people to get to work or cease too soon to provide access to leisure activities will not be used.

Improving Access for Bus Users

11.41 The proposed location of bus stops needs to be considered as early as possible to ensure that they can be positioned safely. Discussions should be held between the developer/property owner, local authority (or Strathclyde Passenger Transport), bus operators and the police, to determine the most suitable location.

11.42 Operators may resist extra stops being placed on a route since it may slow buses and will require timetabling changes. A diversion off an existing route will also add extra journey time. If the density of a development is relatively high, a direct bus route with short walks to the final destinations becomes possible.

11.43 Bus stops need to be as close as possible to the origins of trips, including housing, as well as to the entrances of the buildings that are the final destinations. Bus stops should, ideally, be located:

• to minimise walking distances, yet maximise the potential catchment areas. Ideally, walking distances to bus stops should be shorter than that to the car park, and no more than 400 metres but will need to be much shorter for people with mobility impairments (e.g. sheltered housing);
• on pedestrian routes to and from the main bus trip generators;
• on a road that allows a direct and, wherever possible, an uncongested bus route;
• close to pedestrian crossing facilities;
• on routes with easy physical access for those with mobility impairments;
• close to junctions and on their exit sides, to facilitate passenger interchange with other buses, but without interfering with junction capacity or compromising road safety;
• not directly in front of banks or building societies, where security vehicles need to park; and
• away from residential and other sensitive frontages, where noise and disturbance are undesirable.

11.44 In practice, it may not be possible to meet all these criteria, in which case, priority should be given to ensuring safety and meeting the needs of those with reduced mobility.

11.45 Buildings set back from the bus route must be linked to it by footpaths that are direct, well surfaced, well lit, without steep inclines or barriers which are difficult to negotiate and, if possible, protected from the weather. It is preferable that passengers do not have to cross major traffic flows to reach a stop.

11.46 Private developers should aim to accommodate all types of bus, wherever possible, although this may not be appropriate for some residential developments. Smaller buses can gain access to places which are not easily accessible to larger buses, such as narrow residential roads with on-street parking and highways that are affected by weight and height restrictions. However, there may be operational difficulties in assuring that smaller vehicles are always available to serve a development.

11.47 There is an increasing use of low floor vehicles, which provide much easier access for all passengers but particularly people with mobility impairments including elderly and disabled people and those with young children. The benefits of low floor vehicles can only be fully realised where these vehicles can easily pull alongside the kerb at bus stops. The installation of raised kerbs at bus stops further assists boarding and alighting.

11.48 Where potential bus use is low, or there are many small potential destinations, a "hail and ride" bus service may be suitable, in which passengers hail the bus from the footway or ask the driver to stop to set them down at any point along the route.

Bus Priority and Traffic Management

11.49 Delays to buses resulting from congestion, either within the development or at the junctions with the surrounding road network, must be minimised. Peak period congestion in urban areas can lead to buses spending 80 percent of their running time travelling just 20 percent of their journey.

11.50 Wherever possible bus priority measures should therefore be included into larger developments from the start of the planning process. This may involve providing bus lanes, bus-only roads or special junction designs. Bus-only links allow buses to follow a direct route through a development, while excluding other through traffic. Bus-only links will require changes to the layout of the development and must be taken account of at the design stage.

New or Diverted Bus Services

11.51 A bus route through a development should be as direct as possible, with entry and exit points that fit with the surrounding network of bus routes. Destinations should be located either side of the bus route with only short walks to the bus stops. It may also be possible to provide a bus service to integrate with rail services.

11.52 The walking distance will typically be about 1.3 times the straight-line distance to the bus stop, and safe pedestrian crossings should be supplied near each stop. However, it is better to provide bus routes that are simple and direct than to divert bus routes merely to shorten walking distances.

Access to Rail Services

11.53 With developments served by rail, the aim should be to provide safe, direct and convenient pedestrian (and cycle) routes to and from the development, with suitable entrances and layout within the development site. Generally, people are willing to walk twice as far to or from a station than a bus stop - up to 800 m for rail compared to 400 m for bus. Cycle parking should be provided at stations.

11.54 If a new station or additional services are envisaged, early consultation with the Strategic Rail Authority and the Train Operating Company as well as the local authority (and Strathclyde Passenger Transport in the SPT area) will be essential. Where a new station is under consideration for an existing line, the choice of possible station locations will be limited by the track layout and by railway operating issues.

Vehicular Access and Parking

11.55 Since all developments are likely to generate some additional traffic (or lead to the diversion of existing traffic) the Transport Assessment must address their needs. Managing car access and parking will continue to be an important part of influencing travel choice. Measures should be introduced to minimise the need for parking, yet provide for the good design and location of parking and access arrangements.

Managing the Number of Parking Spaces

11.56 NPPG 17 makes clear that levels of parking in new development needs to be minimised in order to promote sustainable transport choices. The availability of parking is important in determining travel choices. Furthermore minimising the level of parking will also reduce the land-take of the development, allowing more concentrated development with less car parking. As a result some developments will be able to fit into central urban sites, promoting linked-trips and access to developments for those without use of a car.

Table 2: maximum parking standards for scotland

11.57 NPPG 17 sets out a clear policy framework for minimising the levels of parking. Developers should not be required to provide more spaces than they themselves wish, other than in exceptional circumstances (which might include for example where there are significant implications for road safety which cannot be resolved through the introduction or enforcement of on-street parking controls).

11.58 National maximum parking standards have been published for consultation in Scotland in Addendum to NPPG 17. They apply to developments above the defined thresholds shown in Table 2 (above). Local authorities may adopt more rigorous standards. It should not be assumed that where a proposal accords with the relevant maximum parking standard it would be automatically considered acceptable. Developments with significant transport implications should still show the measures they are taking to minimise on-site parking in the Transport Assessment.

11.59 There are two circumstances where the maximum standards may not be considered to be applicable:

• for retail and leisure schemes in town centre and edge of centre sites where the parking will genuinely serve the town centre as a whole. In these cases the local authorities will want to be sure that the parking is consistent with the size of the centre and the town centre parking strategy; and
• for developments where the applicant has demonstrated through the Transport Assessment that a higher level of parking is needed than would normally be the case and has indicated the measures they are taking to minimise the need for parking. These cases will be rare, given that if a developer is locating, designing and implementing a scheme in line with NPPG17 policy they are very unlikely to need more parking than those specified in the guidance. A request for extra parking is far more likely to indicate that insufficient attention has so far been made to minimising parking.

11.60 The level of parking agreed for the development should therefore be seen as a result of the Transport Assessment process, with levels being determined after access to the site by all modes has been fully assessed (and improved if necessary) and once the effect of measures to improve non-car access has been taken into account.

11.61 Parking arrangements in the area surrounding the development also need to be addressed in the Transport Assessment. On-street parking controls should be introduced in areas adjacent to major travel-generating development to minimise the potential displacement of parking where this is likely. Such controls should be introduced prior to the opening of the development and may play a key role in delivering sustainable transport choices and addressing local congestion.

Location of Parking and Access routes

11.62 On-site parking should be sited so as not to obstruct pedestrian and cycle routes or access to public transport. In general, parking should not be closer to the main entrance and provide easier access for car-users than those on foot and cycle. Parking for the mobility impaired (Blue/Orange badge holders) however, should be as close to the main entrance as possible with the recommended number of places ( NPPG17 Addendum 2002).

Accommodating Vehicle Access

11.63 While the aim is to encourage non-car access to developments it is inevitable that vehicle use will be generated, if only for servicing. For some developments traffic generation could be considerable. Changes to the highway network may therefore be required, including the provision of junctions or roundabouts. Such provision should only be considered after provision for non-car modes has been fully explored and integrated into the development proposal.

11.64 The following changes to highway provision may be required:

• Alterations to traffic light phasing to provide extra time for vehicles accessing the site
• Additional lane provision at junctions
• New light-controlled junctions to permit access onto the surrounding highway network
• New roundabouts to enable access
• New road access into the site

11.65 Vehicle access design must provide for the access needs of large vehicles and abnormal loads. Wider turning circles and dedicated parking will be needed for HGVs.

11.66 In most cases the developer will be required to bear the full cost of alterations to the road infrastructure.

Travel Plans

11.67 Travel Plans can influence travel patterns and often the ideal opportunity for introducing such changes is when organisations are expanding or relocating to new premises.

11.68 The suitability of measures to encourage behavioural change relates to the main functions of the development, and whether it is primarily:

• a workplace, with mostly regular journeys, where there can be strong influence over behaviour;
• a development where much travel will result from visitors (such as for shopping, entertainment etc) where there is less contact with users, and a marketing approach may be more effective;
• a residential area where most journeys will be those made by residents, and there is the ability to contact people at home; and
• a development with a mix of these functions such as a hospital, or a mixed use development

Awareness Raising and Marketing

11.69 Awareness raising and marketing can support the Travel Plan and other measures to change travel patterns, including infrastructure alterations. People need to understand why such measures are being used, and what the travel choices to the site are.

11.70 Examples of awareness raising, marketing and information activities include:

• campaigns encouraging walking and cycling, perhaps for health reasons;
• campaigns on events such as cycle to work days;
• campaigns discouraging car use e.g. Scottish Executive "Learn to Let Go";
• public transport information regularly delivered to households and employers;
• direct marketing of public transport including personalised advice on how to use public transport for journeys with free travel for a period of two weeks or a month; and
• the use of techniques such as Travel Blending (using travel diaries to help prompt changes in travel behaviour) to raise awareness of the impacts of travel decisions, and how they can be changed.

11.71 Information on possible measures is available on the National TravelWise Association web-site http://www.travelwise.org.uk/.

Behavioural Change Initiatives

11.72 Other initiatives designed to encourage behavioural change include:

• Car sharing schemes, in which car sharers have priority parking spaces are an increasingly common and cost effective measure. If this is done there is a need for a database, and someone to run it. Some companies now offer software to simplify this.
• Car park permit schemes can be used to ensure that only those who need a parking space will get one. Application forms can include questions on aspects of working (other than home location) which are of importance, such as late working, or regular need for a car during work hours.
• Bicycle User's Groups (BUGs) can be set up in workplaces or residential areas to ensure measures are put in place to make cycling more convenient, and to encourage others to cycle.
• Schools can set up 'virtual bus' schemes which have escorted walking groups from various pick up points in an area

Changing Working Practices

11.73 One effective method of reducing the need to travel requires changing working practices. Tele-working (for example working at home once or twice a week), tele-conferencing and flexi-time working can all help to reduce the need to travel to a site, particularly during congested periods. New occupants of a development often have a good opportunity to introduce different working methods when they move into new premises. Another approach is to introduce a "compressed" working week whereby employees work longer hours but fewer days.

11.74 Companies might also provide facilities to enable staff to shop via the Internet thus avoiding the need for extra journeys from the site. While this may help to reduce local congestion it is not yet known whether this will cause a net reduction in total vehicular travel.

Incentives to Individuals

11.75 Incentives to individuals can complement physical and organisation measures as part of a package of measures to influence travel patterns. However, financial incentives to individuals cannot form part of any planning obligation under current planning legislation.

11.76 Appropriate incentives will vary and are likely to be most effective with a package of incentives to walk, cycle and use public transport combined with financial disincentives to car use and constraints on car parking.

11.77 Various types of financial incentives can be offered to those who walk and cycle, or agree not to take a car to work. For example, relocation packages can favour employees who choose housing which has easy non-car access to the site. Alternatively, local public transport operators may offer special benefits for new season tickets on local services.

11.78 Many organisations offer direct incentives to use public transport by providing loans or subsidising season tickets. Such tickets normally provide benefits to holders beyond the journey to work, with some bus operators offering transferable tickets for use on any service within the operating areas. Alternatively, companies might find it more effective to organise their own works buses directly, which can then be tailored to the needs of the individual organisation. Incentives to encourage more sustainable travel benefit from increasingly favourable taxation arrangements.

11.79 Company car policy has often encouraged individuals to drive to work or on work-based trips. The taxation arrangements for company cars has changed significantly so that it can be better for individuals to give up company cars and take other travel incentives instead. Company car policy can also be changed by:

• identifying those staff with most need of company car benefits;
• changing the nature of the car-use benefits, for example the travel mileage rates;
• replacing the benefits with other measures relating to other modes, such as cycle allowances; and
• encouraging the use of taxis as an alternative to car use.

11.80 For housing developments, discounted public transport tickets may be offered, and special introductory offers to new residents can be beneficial to operators. Negotiations with operators may also redefine ticket zone boundaries to benefit residents of the development.

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