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Introduction
The phenomenon of human trafficking has received increased attention in recent years from policy makers, academics and non-governmental organisations ( NGOs). However, little empirical research on this subject has been carried out in the UK (Marie and Skidmore 2007; CEOP 2007; Home Office 2007; Skrivánková 2006; IOM 2005; Dickson 2004; Zimmerman 2003; Kelly & Regan 2000) and none to date has focused specifically on trafficking of adults in Scotland.
The research
This report results from a small scale research project carried out by Scottish Government Analytical Services during 2007/2008 to improve the evidence base around human trafficking in Scotland. Although a good deal of research has been conducted at global, European and UK levels, none had previously focused specifically on the nature and extent of the phenomenon in Scotland. This paper seeks to construct a more detailed national picture whilst also examining the issues and challenges for policing and victim care in a Scottish context.
Definition
The internationally accepted definition of human trafficking is the broad one set out in the Palermo Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, which supplements the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. It defines human trafficking as follows.
'Trafficking in human beings' shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.
UK and Scottish policy context
Policy focus in the UK has culminated in the creation of a joint action plan on human trafficking in 2008 by the UK and Scottish Governments and ratification of the provisions contained in the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime on 1 April 2009. In March 2007, the then Home Secretary signed the United Nations Convention on behalf of the UK and the joint action plan which was published at the same time outlined the initial measures needed to implement ratification. Scotland has a significant role to play in the development of this work, which includes identification of victims of trafficking, provision of support, arrest and prosecution of those responsible.
There are a number of other noteworthy developments. In November 2006 the UK Human Trafficking Centre was established. This is a multi-agency law enforcement centre, designed as a hub of expertise to support agencies across the UK in dealing with cases of human trafficking. Launched in early 2006, Operation Pentameter was the first UK wide police operation to focus specifically on tackling human trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation. The operation was carried out over three months and involved all police forces in England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Channel Islands, along with the UK Borders Agency ( UKBA) 2, the Serious and Organised Crime Agency ( SOCA), the Scottish Crime and Drug Enforcement Agency ( SCDEA) and other agencies. The original operation was followed by Pentameter 2 in 2007, a much longer operation in which the focus was widened in order to include other forms of trafficking in adults and children. During this time a Regional Intelligence Cell for Scotland was established within Strathclyde police. While the research upon which this paper is based does not represent an evaluation of Pentameter 2, the timescales of the two do overlap. It is clear that police activity in this field increased significantly during the period of the operation, which generated additional data for analysis.
In 2005 the Trafficking Awareness Raising Alliance ( TARA) Project was set up. It is the only non law enforcement agency focusing specifically on victims of trafficking, which provides services to female adult victims who have been trafficked into sexual exploitation. It liaises with the police, housing departments, health professionals, agencies which work with women in the sex trade and other relevant non-governmental organisations ( NGOs). For most of the research period the TARA team had one full time and one part-time post and only had capacity to provide services to victims recovered within the Glasgow City Council area. However, it subsequently received additional funding to resource more workers on a 6 month pilot basis and widened its remit to provide information and 'plug-in' services to victims recovered across Scotland. Other agencies, including the Scottish Refugee Council, the International Organisation for Migration, and the Women and Children's Department of the Legal Services Agency also provide specialist support to victims at one or more stages of the process. Barnardo's provide services to children and young people who have been trafficked or exploited, as do Local Authority Social Work Services.
Social context
Human trafficking occurs in Scotland in the context of a society which has a small but growing migrant population. Official in-migration figures have doubled in the last five years - in 2001/02 18,357 people identified themselves as migrating to Scotland from overseas and this figure stood at 37,800 in 2006/07 (General Register Office for Scotland 2009). These figures, along with those who are not captured by statistics include many individuals from Eastern European countries which have recently joined the EU3, but also foreign nationals from other countries who come to the UK, usually seeking to improve their standard of living.
The sex trade, which is most prevalent in the major cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Stirling, Aberdeen and Dundee, has increasingly moved 'indoor' in recent years (i.e. from street locations to saunas, massage parlours and private residences) (Sanders 2006 and discussions with Strathclyde police). This is likely to be due to increased policing and lower levels of tolerance for street prostitution and new legislation introduced in late 2006, which criminalises those who buy sex. This movement may also be related to the changing demographic of workers. The industry has traditionally been occupied by individuals from Scotland and other parts of the UK but in recent years this has changed and it is now estimated that approximately 50% of indoor sex workers in Glasgow -the largest urban centre for sex work - are from outside the UK4. Migrants may consider it less risky to work indoors, especially if they are living in the UK illegally. In the year or so prior to the research there was also a notable movement within the indoor sex industry - from saunas and massage parlours to private houses and flats.
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