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ANNEX 1 DEFINITIONS OF VOLUNTEERING
What is Volunteering?
An issue that scholars of volunteering continue to grapple with is that of what exactly constitutes volunteering. Below is a discussion of the differing views that exist regarding the nature of volunteering.
Perspectives of Volunteering
In his review of volunteering literature, Rochester (2006) identifies three perspectives of voluntary activity:
- the non-profit paradigm
- the civil society paradigm
- volunteering as leisure.
The Non-Profit Paradigm
In this perspective, volunteering is seen as unpaid labour that contributes to the work of large and well-staffed non-profit organisations.
The Civil Society Paradigm
In the civil society paradigm, volunteers work for organisations that depend entirely on volunteers, where volunteers work together to meet shared needs and address common problems. In this paradigm, volunteering is described as activism and is viewed as a force for social change.
Volunteering as Leisure
This perspective of volunteering asserts that volunteering can be seen as a leisure time activity. This may involve 'casual' volunteering (for example, baking for a church fete) or a more substantial undertaking such as the organisation of a sporting or cultural event.
In reality, an individual's experience of volunteering is likely to combine more than one of the above perspectives, but this provides an illustration of the complexity of volunteering and the range of views associated with it.
Typology of Volunteering
The above perspectives of volunteering demonstrate that there are a number of activities that can be regarded as volunteering.
Rochester (2006) refers to a typology of volunteering that encompasses the wide range of activities that can be classified as volunteering. Four distinctive strands of voluntary activity have been identified:
- mutual aid or self-help - where people with shared problems, challenges and conditions work together to address or improve them
- philanthropy and service to others - where volunteers are recruited by an organisation to provide some kind of service to one or more third parties
- participation - involvement (on a voluntary basis) in the political or decision-making process at any level, for example from participation in a residents' forum to holding honorary office in a voluntary organisation
- advocacy or campaigning - collective action aimed at securing or preventing change, for example, campaigning against developments seen as damaging to the environment.
Definitions of Volunteering
The above typology provides a useful summary of the activities that can be considered as volunteering. However, as illustrated by the differing perspectives on volunteering, a range of views on volunteering exists. Not surprisingly, therefore, academics and policymakers often disagree as to whether or not a certain activity can be classified as volunteering. For example, while one policymaker might define participation in a public demonstration as a voluntary activity, another might not.
Consequently, attempts to conclusively distinguish between voluntary activity and other activities have resulted in the development of a variety of definitions of volunteering by academics and policymakers. Cnaan et al (1996) identified four dimensions common to a number of these definitions, as follows:
- free choice
- absence of remuneration
- structure
- intended beneficiaries.
One definition of volunteering that displays these dimensions is that provided in the Scottish Executive's Volunteering Strategy (2004):
"the giving of time and energy through a third party, which can bring measurable benefits to the volunteer, individual beneficiaries, groups and organisations, communities, environment and society at large. It is a choice undertaken of one's own free will, and is not motivated primarily for financial gain or for a wage or salary."
However, in his review of volunteering literature, Rochester (2006) asserts that while there is some consensus regarding the core characteristics of volunteering, there is no single, simple, objective definition that draws a clear line between what is volunteering and what is not. There remain some 'fuzzy boundaries' between activities regarded as volunteering and those that are not:
- formal and informal volunteering
- free choice versus coercion
- absence of remuneration.
Formal and Informal Volunteering
Volunteering can be formal - where unpaid work is undertaken through an organisation, group or club to help other people or to aid a cause such as the improvement of the environment - or informal, where unpaid help is given to as an individual to people who are not relatives.
However, there may be some 'grey areas' here. For example, where does giving unpaid gardening help to a neighbour stop being neighbourliness and become voluntary activity?
Free Choice versus Coercion
While Cnaan et al's (1996) common dimensions of definitions of volunteering included an element of free choice, some activities that might be regarded as voluntary may actually involve a level of coercion. For example, some forms of employer supported volunteering may involve a level of coercion, as might unpaid work experience that are necessary to prepare for employment.
Moral coercion may also exist. For instance, a parent may feel compelled to help run a service that his or her children benefit from.
Absence of Remuneration
The issue of whether or not volunteers should be remunerated for their time, in money or other material reward, is one that has caused controversy in the voluntary sector.
It is common practice to ensure that volunteers are reimbursed for any expenses they incur in the course of their volunteering activities, but do not receive any other material reward.
However, this principle is not universally applied. Blacksell and Phillips (1994) found that a significant proportion of volunteers in the UK have received some kind of payment in addition to the reimbursement of expenses.
The boundary between whether or not volunteers are rewarded is further blurred by the use of other kinds of material reward such as birthday or Christmas gifts, free theatre and sporting tickets and so on.
Some parties, including the Charity Commission (2003), have called for payments to be made for some forms of volunteering, such as Housing Association board membership. However, this has caused controversy as any payment of volunteers will undermine the essence of the 'gift relationship' inherent in volunteering.
Motives for Volunteering
Rochester (2006) found that it is widely accepted that a mix of self-interest (benefits for the volunteer and his/her family) and altruism (benefits for other people or the environment) results in a motivation to volunteer. However, some definitions of volunteering, such as that proposed by Dekker and Halman (2003), suggest that to be considered as volunteering, an activity must result in public benefit.
However, this definition may exclude many 'volunteering as leisure' activities in clubs and organisations that benefit solely their members rather than the wider public.
Understanding Volunteering
It is clear, therefore, that there is a lack of consensus regarding many of the complex issues surrounding volunteering and around exactly which activities should and should not be regarded as volunteering.
Consequently, estimates of the prevalence of volunteering in the population as a whole and among certain groups in society gathered through different surveys are often different and incomparable.
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