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Further Reading
We were aware of the existence of a substantial amount of further literature, which we did not select for further assessment. This literature includes international sources, more academic critiques and studies, or materials that go into greater depth into particular aspects of community capacity building. Some of it may be difficult to access. We list these below, along with an abstract of their content.
Community Research - Getting Started is published by ARVAC and provides a guide for individuals and groups wanting to get started with a community research project. This draws on the invaluable lessons learnt from a ground breaking UK wide project. The pack shows how it is possible to do research yourself, even with limited time and resources, guiding readers through the process with helpful planning charts and listings of useful books, organisations, web sites and software. Written specifically for community groups, the pack is also useful to researchers, consultants, trainers and second tier organisations. The cost is between £15 and £30.
Civic Participation and Community Action Sourcebook: a resource for adult educators
New England Literacy Resource Centre, 1999, 2001
Closely related to the US national Equipped for the Future programme and focusing specifically on "what adults need to know and be able to do" as community members. Materials, exercises and materials under the headings of: finding connections to communities and issues; holding decision-makers accountable; building community by helping others; expressing ourselves and educating others; organising for change.
Community Capacity Building and Voluntary Sector Infrastructure in Rural England.
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2003
Provides analysis of the importance of community capacity building and volunteering in a rural context and how DEFRA will support community capacity building.
Community Education Validation and Endorsement (CeVe) Guidelines for Post Qualifying Community Practice and Development Training.
Advisory guidelines to encourage high quality training. The guidelines were drawn up in 1998 but have never been formally published or used for training developments.
Rethinking approaches to community capacity building,
Eg e magazine, Vol 10 No 6 Jun 2004, pp11-13
Discusses the definition of capacity building and highlights aspects of the 'deficit' model approach to capacity building. Looks at the issues, policy objectives and policy solutions relevant to the 'capacity debate'. Considers some of the problems associated with the deficit model arguing that it pays no attention to the capacity of institutions to overcome barriers to engagement, and that the definition gives no indication of an end point. Presents an alternative approach to capacity building - the latent capacity model - and compares this with the deficit model.
Building community capacity: a definitional framework and case studies from a comprehensive community initiative,
Chaskin, Robert J.Urban Affairs Review, Vol 36 No 3 Jan 2001, pp291-323
Discusses the concept of community capacity building in the context of community development efforts. Attempts to define community capacity and community building in practice. Builds on the existing literature of community building efforts to develop a systemic framework for understanding how it can be built and the mechanisms through which it operates. Sets out fundamental characteristics of community capacity and the levels of social agency through which it is engaged. Examines the functions of community capacity and strategies for building it. Uses two case studies from the Neighbourhood Forum Initiative in the United States to illustrate the application of the framework to empirical practice. Compares approaches used in Hartford, Connecticut, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Focuses on two factors that influence the development of community capacity building: the constraints of organisational collaboration, and the complexity of involving 'neighbourhood actors' in the community capacity building programme.
Management of regeneration.
Diamond, John, Liddle, Joyce . Routledge , 2005
Explains strategic processes, forms of regeneration management, and changing managerial roles. A valuable professional resource, it presents a balanced approach using both theoretical and practical material. Contents include: Context Setting; Learning New Skills and Competences; Strategy; Leadership and Stakeholder Engagement; Partnership; Capacity Building; Governance Scrutiny and Accountability; An International Dimension.
Local regeneration initiatives and capacity building: whose 'capacity' and 'building' for what?
Diamond, John Community Development Journal, Vol 39 No 2 Apr 2004, pp177-189
Argues that new regeneration structures based on concepts of 'partnership' and multi-agency' cooperation have failed to alter differences in power between community groups and regeneration professionals. Outlines competing accounts of the evolution of UK government neighbourhood regeneration initiatives. Outlines shared assumptions concentrating on partnership working and capacity building. Reflects on the decentralisation of services by some local authorities in the 1980s and the impact this had on current local government policy. Critically defines a model of capacity building. Reports on community involvement in two regeneration initiatives in Glasgow and Manchester. Applies Schuftan's model of empowerment to the two projects. Concludes that there is a need for 'externality' or independence of workers in the community capacity building process.
Engaging Scotland: the implications for community capacity building,
Elrick, DeirdreJournal of Lifelong Learning Initiatives, No 32 Oct 2002, pp22-24
Examines some of the issues and opportunities to consider when engaging with the public in decision-making processes. Looks at the need for basic capacity building and dealing with the elementary needs of communities if they are to become effectively involved, and outlines the processes used for engagement. Notes that access to information is one of the basic core values, and analyses the connection between capacity building at community level and the growth of engagement in decision-making processes.
Empowering Communities - The Community Gateway Model.
Chapman HendyHACAS. CIH, 2003
Tenants often feel that they lack influence over their housing, particularly in big decisions like stock transfer and proposals for arm's length management. This report shows how they can get involved right from the start. The Community Gateway Model allows tenants to have different levels of control or even ownership. The report sets out the process of involving tenants in this new approach, and how to develop a 'community empowerment strategy'. It describes in detail how to set up a 'community gateway association' to implement the new model. The report deals with business planning and funding. A comprehensive 'toolkit' is provided for councils, housing associations and tenants who want to try this new approach.
Community leadership development.
Kirk P.; Shutte A.M . Community Development Journal, Volume 39, Number 3, July 2004, pp. 234-251(18)
This paper presents a model for community leadership capacity building. This model for individual and organizational development is being used with the Resource and Development Foundation ( RDF) in Stellenbosch, South Africa. RDF is a non-governmental organization with the aim of providing resource-based training and capacity-building services to the socially excluded and disadvantaged youth, women and rural people of the Western Cape. Here we examine the process of capacity building, theoretically and practically, with the intention of discovering lessons to inform management education in relation to leadership and change. The paper explores the issues related to developing empowerment: the capacity of a system to engage in enterprising dialogue where power is unequally distributed. It proposes a community leadership development framework that comprises three components: leading change through dialogue, collective empowerment and connective leadership.
Case study of grassroots community development: sustainable, flexible and cost-effective responses to local needs
Kelly, Katharine; Caputo, Tullio . Community Development Journal, Volume 41, Number 2, April 2006, pp. 234-245(12)
This paper presents the results of a case study of a grassroots community development initiative in St. John, New Brunswick. It was part of a larger study designed to investigate the sustainability of community-based crime prevention activities. This case study highlights a unique strategy for addressing local community needs. The lessons learned in St. John address many of the common challenges related to community development such as community mobilization, capacity building, planning, partnerships and sustainability. Some attention is also directed at the role of government and non-governmental agencies in community-based initiatives since this represents an ongoing concern for those involved in community development.
Maintaining Product - Process Balance in Community Antipoverty Initiatives.
Hannah, Gordon . Social Work, Volume 51, Number 1, January 2006, pp. 9-17(9)
Antipoverty initiatives strive to improve distressed communities by producing outputs, such as housing, new businesses, and enhanced social services, and by building the capacity of communities to address their own problems. Although crucial for addressing the social and cultural factors contributing to community problems and for the sustainability of initiatives, capacity building is frequently set aside once implementation of initiatives begins. This article explores the funding realities, implementation demands, and power dynamics between stakeholders that result in output production being favoured over capacity building. Examples from past and ongoing initiatives illustrate points and drive recommendations to help future initiatives maintain a balance between producing outputs and building capacity.
Community Capacity Building: A Critical Evaluation of the Third Sector Approach.
Williams, Colin C . Review of Policy Research, Volume 21, Number 5, September 2004, pp. 729-739(11)
Throughout the advanced economies, public policy has become ever more deeply involved in developing the capacities of communities to help themselves. Until now, this has been pursued through facilitating the development of community-based groups. The aim of this paper, however, is to critically evaluate the implications and legitimacy of this public policy approach that views developing community-based groups and community capacity building as synonymous. Drawing upon empirical evidence from the United Kingdom, it is here revealed that this third sector approach of developing community-based groups privileges a culture of community involvement that relatively few engage in and is more characteristic of affluent populations, while disregarding informal acts of one-to-one engagement that are both a more popular form of community involvement and also more characteristic of the participatory culture of less affluent populations. The paper concludes by exploring how public policy might respond, especially with regard to the finding that less affluent populations have relatively informal cultures of engagement.
A Practitioner's Guide to Successful Coalitions.
Wolff T . American Journal of Community Psychology, Volume 29, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 173-191(19)
The highly complex practice of building successful community coalitions is explored. Key dimensions related to coalition success are identified and best practices are delineated. Nine dimensions are explored that are critical to coalition success: coalition readiness, intentionality, structure and organizational capacity, taking action, membership, leadership, dollars and resources, relationships, and technical assistance. Two coalition case studies follow the discussion of dimensions and illustrate the journey travelled to create successful community coalitions.
"Consultation Guidelines, Effective Public Involvement."
Fife Council, 1999 (Contact: Communications unit, 01592 413984)
This guidance not only describes a range of methods for consulting communities but also stresses the importance of preparation, choosing the most appropriate method, and the need for good evaluation.
Regenerating neighbourhoods: a critical look at the role of community capacity building,
Banks, Sarah; Shenton, Felicity . Local Economy, Vol 16 No 4 Nov 2001, pp286-298
Presents a critical analysis of the concept of community capacity building. Discusses the growth in interest in capacity building and identifies two approaches - developmental and strategic. Briefly discusses the term 'community capacity building' within the context of the new vocabulary being used in the field of neighbourhood regeneration. Explores two examples of the different approaches to community capacity building, drawing on research undertaken in two ex-coalfield villages in Bolton on Dearne in South Yorkshire and Craghead in County Durham.
Devolved approaches to local governance: policy and practice in neighbourhood management.
Burgess, Hall, Mawson & Pearce , YPS 2001.
Three approaches to neighbourhood management: area based; theme or client based; and project specific. They are identified according to how they attempt to meet eight possible objectives: establishing the needs, priorities and aspirations of key players and individuals; building community capacity; enhancing and legitimising the role of elected members; improving service delivery; developing the enabling role of local authorities; producing better 'joined up' working; controlling main programmes and budgets; and encouraging innovation.
The Paradoxes and Promise of Community Coalitions.
Chavis D.M . American Journal of Community Psychology, Volume 29, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 309-320(12)
Community coalitions, as they are currently applied, are unique organizations whose ability to promote community change is different from other types of community organizations. This article explores those differences and elaborates how community coalitions can use those differences to transform conflict into greater capacity, equity, and justice. Concerns are also raised in this article about how community coalitions can intentionally and unintentionally protect the status quo and contain the empowerment of grassroots leadership and those of marginalized groups. There is a need for more theory, research, and discourse on how community coalitions can transform conflict into social change and how they can increase the power of grassroots and other citizen-lead organizations.
Black voluntary and community sector funding: its impact on civic engagement and capacity building.
Chouhan, Karen; Lusane, Clarence.York Publishing Services, 2004.
Looks at the relationship between funding of the black and voluntary community sector and how this affects the ability of the sector to involve black and minority ethnic ( BME) communities in London and Leicester in civic engagement, social inclusion and capacity building. Explores how black organisations perceive their position vis-a-vis funding particularly the opportunities and operation of funding streams supporting civic engagement, social inclusion and capacity building. Includes brief case studies. Sets out conclusions and recommendations.
'CAPACITY BUILDING' AS A PUBLIC MANAGEMENT GOAL - Myth, magic or the main chance?
Harrow J. Public Management Review, Volume 3, Number 2, 1 June 2001, pp. 209-230(22)
The concept of 'capacity building' is explored, through illustration and critique of the concept's development in the international, national and local community literature. Theoretical strands where the concept belongs partially include community development theory, agency theory and stewardship theory. The concept is examined in the context of new public management thinking, and its discovery by professionals to enhance their community roles is highlighted. Findings from micro-level case study research among local community organizations are reported, suggesting organizational scepticism about its meaning and outcomes, and producing a preliminary typology of organizations' responses to the concept. The article concludes that the concept appears theoretically homeless. It emphasizes the need for clarification of the concept's multiple meanings, so that the chances of useful evaluation of publicly funded capacity building programmes may be enhanced.
Building civil renewal: a review of government support for community capacity building and proposals for change - a consultation paperCivil Renewal Unit. Home Office, 2003.
Confirms the government's aim to promote civil renewal. Provides a definition of community capacity building. Puts forward some key values and principles. Describes some key components for community level infrastructure and options for change at community level. Discusses the consultation process and the joining up of the consultations. Provides some consultation guidelines and a partial regulatory impact assessment.
Change up: capacity building and infrastructure framework for the voluntary and community sector.
Home Office, 2004.
Explains that the voluntary and community sector plays a crucial role in delivering public services and in building strong communities. Identifies the support needs of frontline organisations, which include performance improvement and the recruitment, and development of volunteers. Provides an architecture of how support should develop in the next decade and highlights key strategic actions which will build that support.
Community capacity building or state opportunism?
Mowbray, Martin.Community Development Journal, Volume 40, Number 3, July 2005, pp. 255-264(10)
Communitarianism is again a vogue idea in policy discourse, but the goals pursued through associated programmes are often confused. Extravagant claims about strengthening communities, rebuilding social capital and addressing human needs in innovative ways proliferate. The state of Victoria boasts that such priorities are now at the heart of its approach to government. As evidence, it promotes one of its community building schemes as helping small communities take charge of their destinies, but a critical analysis reveals nothing of the kind. Although the programme supports the continued provision of low-key local services, it is just as much a frugal means to legitimate the state's continuing commitment to economic fundamentalism.
Capacity building for community planning: a report to the Community Planning Task Force.
Scottish Executive Social Research . The Stationery Office, 2002.
Reports on a study to research the capacity building requirements of community planning ( CP) in Scotland, with particular reference to the training and development needs of staff. Outlines the key issues in CP: ambiguity and lack of definition; community planning at an early development stage; cultural context of the CP partners; the differing pace and nature of CP development; the incentives and duties to address CP; and the absence of a learning and development base. Presents an overview of the partnerships' learning and development environment. Develops a learning development framework for CP. Identifies four distinct but inter-related learning areas: values and visioning; partnership working; practitioner skills; and engaging communities. Looks at the current and planned provision of capacity building. Presents recommendations for the following areas: capacity building plans; learning approaches and methods; resourcing; and quality.
Capacity building for community planning Scottish Executive,
Scottish Executive. Social Research,Eglinton. 2002
This research was commissioned by the Community Planning Task Force to help it gain a better understanding of skills & development needs of officers across a range of Community Planning partnerships.
The time of our lives: using time banking for neighbourhood renewal and community capacity building.
Seyfang, Gill; Smith, Karen. New Economics Foundation, 2002.
Reports on time banking in the UK. Looks at its origins and development, and its place in the arena of regeneration and community development initiatives. Evaluates the impacts and outcomes of time banking in terms of overcoming social exclusion. Presents three case studies of existing time banks: Stonehouse Fair Share, Gloucestershire; Rushey Green Time Bank, Lewisham, South London; and Gorbals Time Bank, Glasgow. Identifies those factors which enable greater success and the challenges which face time banks. Assesses the potential of time banks, and the various ways they could be used in the future for projects including regeneration, community development and health improvement.
Capacity-building, representation and intracommunity conflict.
Shirlow P, Murtagh, B. Urban Studies, Jan 2004 41(1) pp57-70
Challenges some of the assumptions about the categorisation of community as a distinctive stakeholder with a shared set of values capable of mobilising in different discursive arenas with competing interests to achieve its aims. Explores the contested nature of community in the context of urban regeneration and focuses on the Republican Nationalist neighbourhood of Ardoyne in North Belfast. Examines the rationale for capacity building. Questions the unitary notion of community and the motivation of the state in delivering key programmes.
Who are the capacity builders?
Taylor P (introduced by Chanan G) Community Development Foundation, 2006
Provides an introductory discussion of capacity building and how it relates to other policies and objectives, and a summary of the first ever study of how many people are carrying out community capacity building work in the UK. Carried out in six case study areas in England, the study looks at whether capacity building is carried out by specialist workers or as part of wider responsibilities how it is focused, what agencies are involved and how coordinated local efforts are . The full report (2005) is available at: http://www.cdf.org.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/DOCUMENT/Finalreport.pdf
Building community capacity in governance and decision making
Van der Plaat, Madine; Barrett, Gene., Community Development Journal, Vol 41 No 1 Jan 2006,pp25-36
Examines the mechanisms for involving marginalised groups in the process of participation. Focuses on parents' experiences participating in two of Canada's largest community-based health promotion programmes for children and families. Also looks at community participation in governance and decision making in the community development and health promotion literature. Focuses on the importance of informal governance processes for facilitating the involvement of marginalised groups in the public sphere. Discusses barriers to the process and makes suggestions for capacity building.
Mission impossible? Capacity building and the case of the Crosby Plaza Community Cinema,
Wilks-Heeg, Stuart. Local Economy, Vol 17 No 2 May 2002, pp153-157
Discusses the transformation of a local community action group into a registered charity managing the Crosby Plaza Community Cinema in Crosby, Merseyside. Identifies the challenges faced and the capacity building necessary to achieve such community entrepreneurship. Explores what is different about a cinema business operating under community control, and the wider benefits this brings to the local residents. Examines the implications of the Plaza experience in relation to the extent to which community control of local economic assets can play a role in promoting social inclusion.
Community Coalition Building-Contemporary Practice and Research: Introduction.
Wolff T. American Journal of Community Psychology, Volume 29, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 165-172(8)
Over the last 20 years, coalition building has become a prominent intervention employed in communities across America. Coalitions provide community psychologists and those in related fields with a chance to work with whole communities and to better understand how to create community change. As we reflect on the past two decades of community coalition building, there are many questions to be answered about this phenomenon. Why has there been such an upsurge in community coalition building activity? What is the impact of this activity? What have we as students of community learned? What are the questions that we need to be asking to improve the effectiveness of coalition building efforts and their evaluation? This set of articles will review the state of the art of community coalition building in both practice and research. The structure of the articles reflects a collaborative process, with multiple contributors from different disciplines, using a variety of formats. Because this is an evolving phenomenon where the questions asked are as important as the lessons learned, many of the major sections include dialogues with community experts from across the country and from multiple fields, including community psychology, public health, political science, public administration, and grassroots organizing.
Becoming Visible - Operating standards for community organisations
Published by Community Matters 2006 ( ISBN: 0 900787 85 6)
The Visible Communities standards are a bold attempt to help community organisations to measure and develop their work. This workbook focuses on both the mission and the performance and each section has practical examples, case studies and other detail to illustrate their crucial role in communities. The framework has been developed from the grassroots up. Members and other stakeholders of Community Matters were involved in every stage of the design and it is recommended by the Charity Commission, Local Government Association and the Home Office.
Cost: Members: £20 small orgs, £27 large orgs. Non members: £35 small orgs, £46 large orgs.
Available from: Community Matters, 12-20 Baron Street, London, Ni 9LL, tel: 0845 74253, email: liz.cleverly@communitymatters.org.uk or anna.stinson@communitymatters.org.uk
Capacity building: lessons from a pilot programme with black and minority ethnic voluntary and community organisations
Ellis J, Latif SJoseph Rowntree Foundation 2006
This study reviews a pilot programme which aimed to build the capacity of voluntary organisations to flourish by adopting more business-like approaches and becoming more outward-looking. Read it at: http://www.jrf.org.uk/redirect.asp?url=findings/socialpolicy/1928
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