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CHAPTER TWO FACTORS AFFECTING VISITOR TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR

Introduction

2.1 This chapter reviews the relevant academic literature on modal choice, attempts to produce a constructive classification of the factors which are considered to affect modal choice and in particular seeks to isolate the roles of customer satisfaction ( CS) and service quality ( SQ) in modal choice. These factors are then evaluated from the perspective of the visitor to a destination, in an attempt to illustrate where and how potential differences can arise between visitors and local users of public transport in terms of their travel choice behaviour.

Factors affecting modal choice

2.2 Hovell et al. (1975) contend that the market for urban public transport falls along the continuum illustrated in Figure 2.1. At one end of the continuum, captive car users require a car (e.g. for work purposes) and are not considered to be potential public transport users. At the other end, captive public transport users do not have access to a car and are therefore reliant on public transport, where there is a need or desire to make a journey. In between the two poles, travellers have degrees of choice over the transport mode used. In the case of Scotland, around 35% of domestic visitors and 85% of overseas visitors arrive without their private car, placing them towards the pole of the captive public transport user. Nonetheless, visitors may choose to hire a car at the destination. The decision to use a car or the existing public transport infrastructure is likely to be based on many of the same factors that influence modal choice for local users; however other factors specific to visitors may be of equal relevance.

Figure 2.1 Spectrum of public transport users

Source Hovell et al. (1975)

2.3 Hovell et al. (1975) remark that whilst time and money costs are often cited as determining modal choice, 'the nature of the factors comprising these costs, their relative importance and interrelationship, is only imperfectly understood' (1975:42). They contend that analyses of factors affecting modal choice must extend beyond time and money costs, suggesting that the following service attributes are additionally evaluated by consumers in the decision to use public transport.

• Price;
• In-vehicle time (duration of trip, speed);
• Mesh density (route coverage and access to stops);
• Frequency;
• Reliability ;
• Comfort.

2.4 The decision to use public transport is considered to be based on subjective perceptions of these six service attributes influenced by available information and promotional tactics particularly in the case of non-local and first time users, into which category visitors will fall.

2.5 Kittleson and Associates et al., (1999:38) affirm a very strong relationship between public transport SQ and modal choice.

"Quality of service reflects the kinds of decisions a potential passenger makes, consciously or not, when deciding whether to use transit or another mode, usually the private automobile."

2.6 They distinguish between two parts of the decision making process, arguing that service attributes are only taken into account once travellers have established that public transport is an option for the journey. The usability of public transport is assessed on the basis of four types of availability. Spatial availability origin and spatial availability destination are gauged on the basis of whether there is a demand responsive public transport service available within walking distance of the origin and destination of the trip. In addition, information availability (the availability of adequate and accurate information) and temporal availability (whether a public transport service is available at the required time) affect the determination of whether public transport is an option for a particular journey or indeed whether the trip can be made (Kittleson and Associates et al., 1999). Where public transport is considered to be an option for a trip, the decision process moves to stage two, which is an assessment of the comfort and convenience of public transport compared with other possible modes, the following factors being paramount in weighing comfort and convenience of public transport modes (Kittleson and Associates et al., 1999):

• Potential for making journey on foot;
• Reliability of public transport service;
• Length of wait for service and availability of shelter at public transport stop;
• Security concerns;
• Crowdedness of public transport vehicle;
• Cleanliness of vehicles and shelters;
• Cost of trip;
• Number of transfers required;
• Duration of trip relative to other modes.

2.7 Like Hovell et al. (1975), Kittleson and Associates et al. (1999) highlight the subjectivity of modal choice, stressing that individuals will weigh the above factors according to their own personal values.

2.8 Whilst the observations of Hovell et al. (1975) and Kittleson and Associates et al. (1999) provide a useful overview of transport modal choice, there is no evidence that the factors which are claimed by these two studies to affect modal choice have been derived from any empirical basis. However, two UK studies, conducted on a consultancy basis, have uncovered, by means of social survey techniques, a range of factors affecting the decision to use public transport within the UK.

2.9 A study of 1287 car users, investigating reasons why motorists use their car rather than public transport, established that the factors exhibited in Table 2.1 were of greatest importance in modal choice (Lex Service PLC, 1998).

Table 2.1 Top ten factors affecting motorists' decision to use public transport

Source: Lex Service PLC (1998)

2.10 Mackett and Robertson (2000) note that the factors established by Lex Service PLC (1998) are confirmed by the results of a UK household study of 1405 adults (Railtrack, 1998) which elicited the most significant factors that would have to improve for travellers to choose to travel by bus. The top ten factors are shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Top ten factors which would need to improve to increase bus usage

Source: Railtrack (1998)

2.11 Whilst Table 2.2 focuses only on modal choice with regard to use of the bus as an alternative to the car, there is a clear overlap with other studies discussed above which examine factors affecting the decision to use public transport in general. Furthermore, the studies by Lex Service PLC (1998) and Railtrack (1998) provide an indication of the importance of the various factors in determining modal choice.

2.12 A study of factors affecting modal choice with specific reference to rail travel (Hanna and Drea, 1998) established a more general series of attributes considered by consumers when choosing to use the train. These attributes, which were observed from a series of focus groups, show that modal choice is affected by a combination of factors relating to both the 'in-transit experience' and the 'antecedents and consequences of ridership' (Hanna and Drea, 1998: 40). This finding is consistent with those of Lex Service PLC (1998) and Railtrack (1998), both of which established that factors related to the pre- and post-journey stages (e.g. access to and lighting at bus stops) were important to modal choice.

2.13 An indication of the importance of the attributes affecting modal choice observed by Hanna and Drea (1998) is shown in Table 2.3. Whilst Hanna and Drea (1998) included both leisure and business travellers in their survey sample, the focus of the paper is on significant differences between train users and non-users, and the results are not disaggregated by journey purpose. Notably, Railtrack (1998) and Hanna and Drea (1998) both identify location/route coverage as the most important factor affecting the decision to use public transport. The fact that route is not identified in the study of factors needing to improve for travellers to use the bus (Lex Service PLC, 1998) may well be due to the generally much higher density of bus route coverage.

Table 2.3 Importance ¹ of attributes influencing modal choice

Source: Hanna and Drea (1998)

2.14 It is useful, at this point, to examine collectively the factors which have been suggested in the transport literature discussed above to play a role in modal choice. Table 2.4 shows the factors which are mentioned in more than one of the above studies.

Table 2.4 Summary of factors mentioned in more than one study of public transport modal choice

2.15 The findings of the above studies suggest that that there are similarities between customer defined and operator defined attributes affecting modal choice suggesting that it is factors which are under the control of the public transport operator (henceforth called system factors) which are of overriding importance to customers as well as to the operators themselves.

2.16 However, in addition to the system factors discussed above, it is possible to isolate two other types of factor which have also been identified (albeit less frequently) as playing a role in transport modal choice (see Figure 2.2). External factors are referred to by Atkins (2001) as background factors affecting the performance of public transport and by Hanna and Drea (1998) as external environmental variables. Hanna and Drea (1998) note that these factors can be considered relevant to modal choice.

"From a theoretical standpoint, these variables combine with perceptions of the actual in-transit experience to create a total transportation experience, and it is the perception of this total transit experience which determines consumer choices at each level of the decision process." (Hanna and Drea, 1998:38)

Figure 2.2 Classification of factors influencing transport modal choice

2.17 External factors are destination specific, including features such as the natural and built environment, climate and levels of crime. Atkins (2001) argues, for example, that the presence of attractive and architecturally significant buildings may lead to greater environmental awareness, higher tolerance of traffic controls and increased demand for public transport. Furthermore, factors such as a flat landscape and dry climate may increase the propensity to cycle or walk. In addition to external and system factors, personal factors play a role in determining mode of transport choice. This category includes factors which are specific to the individual customer, such as disability or illness, amount of disposable income, or even personality type. Indeed, one of the factors identified above in the survey by Lex Service PLC (1998) as affecting motorists' decision to use public transport, namely carrying a heavy load, can be considered to be a personal factor, rather than one which relates to the system, although the provision by public transport operators of on-board facilities for storing luggage may be a further determining (system) factor.

2.18 Significantly, a qualitative study of transport choice, carried out through a series of focus groups and interviews in various UK locations, identified a number of key customer needs including not only system factors, but also a wide range of personal and external factors. These needs (illustrated in Figure 2.3) were found to be critical factors in determining mode of transport choice ( URS Thorburn Colquhoun et al., 2000). The research also confirms the relationship with customer satisfaction since the fulfilment of these transport needs was found to lead to high levels of satisfaction, thus establishing a clear link between satisfaction and modal choice.

Figure 2.3 Customer defined transport needs

Source: Adapted from URS Thorburn Colquhoun et al. (2000)

2.19 In summary, modal choice has been shown to be affected by three types of factor, only one of which the transport operator has the ability to control. Whilst the captive public transport user (Hovell et al., 1975) may have no option but to travel by public transport, the indication is that potential customers further along the continuum use perceptions of the performance (i.e. quality) of these system factors in deciding not only for public transport as a mode of travel, but also between public transport modes. In other words, the perceived quality of public transport has an importance influence on modal choice, and acts together with personal and environmental factors in dictating travel decision making as regards modal choice. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Direct and indirect influences of personal, system and external factors on choice of mode of transport

Factors affecting visitors' satisfaction with urban public transport

2.20 Few studies of modal choice have differentiated between perceptions of frequent and occasional users of public transport or between work and non-work journeys. It is therefore useful to consider what particular factors may affect visitors' satisfaction with urban public transport and subsequent travel choices. The results of studies which have focussed specifically on the importance of attributes of public transport service quality for non-work journeys or infrequent users will be incorporated.

2.21 Whilst visitors may use many of the same performance attributes that residents use to evaluate satisfaction with public transport, the degree of importance awarded to attributes of quality by visitors may differ from that of residents. Additionally, the personal factors which apply to visitors, particularly those from overseas, and the external factors which are characteristic of the destination in question may influence performance ratings. Tourists have particular characteristics and needs as public transport users in a new destination. They are likely to be first time or occasional users of the system and will be much less familiar with the public transport system than local residents. In addition there may be language difficulties which influence perceptions of performance. Moreover, the importance of transport links to and around tourist areas of the destination potentially acquires a greater importance for the leisure visitor.

2.22 In order to examine the effect of personal factors on perceptions of quality, some of the attributes most frequently included in surveys of satisfaction with public transport in Europe (see Quattro, 1998) are discussed below and suggestions are made as to how these attributes may be viewed differently from the perspective of the visitor.

Customer care

2.23 Visitors who are unfamiliar with a destination may place greater importance on helpfulness and reassurance from public transport staff. Regular users of a public transport system who have local knowledge are often familiar with names of stops and prices for journeys, and thus place less importance on the helpfulness and knowledge of public transport staff in respect of customer care. Visitors, on the other hand, are likely to place greater importance on the helpfulness of ticket staff and drivers who exercise patience and courtesy in communicating with them. In addition, visitors may value knowledgeable drivers who are not only familiar with the route but can also advise on connections to other modes of transport and access to visitor attractions.

Reliability (including waiting time, frequency, punctuality)

2.24 Whereas business visitors may rank reliability similarly to local commuters, leisure visitors may assign less importance to leaving and arriving on time since the majority of journeys undertaken will be for non-essential leisure purposes. Findings from a study by Paine et al. (1969) support this hypothesis. Whilst the importance of reliability of public transport was rated 5.89 on a seven point Likert scale for work trips, it was rated 5.64 for non-work trips (Paine et al., 1969). Similarly, the importance of travel time was rated 4.99 for work trips but only 4.72 for non-work trips ( ibid). As regards frequency, visitors' perceptions of performance on this attribute are likely to be affected by the location in which they are staying during their visit. Furthermore, a lack of timetable knowledge may mean that frequency is of greater importance to visitors than to residents who may use the same service every day.

Information

2.25 The role of information in perceived public transport quality has been shown above to be of great importance to local users. For visitors, it may be of even greater importance. Certainly, the amount, type, time and location of information required by visitors is likely to be different to that favoured by local users. For example, visitors may place greater importance on the availability of information in advance of arrival and visitors from overseas may desire, or even require, information to be available in a variety of languages. Furthermore, the availability of public transport customised for the tourist and integrated with attractions information may also be valued. Balcombe and Vance (1998) and Blackledge (1992) identified differences in the type of information that regular and occasional users of public transport require in order to make a journey, but also in the timing and location of that information. The role of information in the visitor transport experience is elaborated further in Chapter 5 of this report with specific reference to Scotland.

Safety and security

2.26 Scotland's two largest cities account for a sizeable percentage of tourist visits. 34% of domestic trips and 76% of overseas trips to Scotland take in Edinburgh and Glasgow (VisitScotland, 2003). Personal security on board public transport in urban areas may be of concern to visitors, particularly those who are not urban residents in their home country. The importance of safety may also be affected by a lack of knowledge on what action to take in an emergency. Furthermore, performance ratings on safety may be influenced by differing perceptions of what is acceptable behaviour by fellow travellers at an unfamiliar destination.

Cleanliness

2.27 Expected levels of cleanliness may be affected by standards in the home country or equally by more general public cleanliness standards at the destination. However, visitors may apply higher standards of cleanliness to a tourist destination than to their place of residence, increasing the importance of cleanliness of public transport vehicles and stations at the destination.

Ticketing

2.28 Whilst residents are often familiar with the exact or approximate cost of a public transport journey and the different ways in which the journey may be paid for, visitors to are likely to require information on the ticketing system, particularly since public transport ticketing systems vary so greatly on a national and international level. Furthermore, visitors' length of stay at the destination will not necessarily coincide with the weekly or monthly tickets available to residents. van der Berg et al. (1995) have noted the lack of a designated tourist ticket at many urban visitor destinations and ETC (2001) have highlighted the importance of the ability to purchase tickets for entire journeys, or indeed tickets which also permit entry to (as well as travel to) attractions. Failure to provide such specific measures for the visitor may have an effect on his satisfaction with the transport service at a destination.

Chapter summary

2.29 In summary, mode of transport is argued to be directly affected by personal, system and external factors, however personal and external factors also indirectly affect modal choice by means of their influence on perceptions of transport quality. The range of factors and attributes affecting visitors' travel behaviour and the tentative relations between these are encapsulated in Figure 2.4. The most important performance attributes of public transport quality have been established both from a customer and operator perspective. These attributes have subsequently been considered with specific reference to visitors' use of public transport. Evidence from previous research suggests that there may be differences in the ways in which visitors, particularly those from overseas, and local residents evaluate public transport, both in terms of the performance attributes they use to measure quality and satisfaction and the degree of importance awarded to these attributes.

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