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Section 8: Environmental
Vision and Character
"Headquarter environments play a key role in the attraction and retention of staff and the planned development at Gogarburn will create a world class environment with leisure, crèche/nursery facilities as well as a new training centre within a sensitively landscaped environment". Fred Goodwin, Group Chief Executive, RBS262
8.1 The Royal Bank of Scotland headquarters covers a 78 acre site in Gogarburn, near Edinburgh, Scotland. A full environmental impact assessment was undertaken by the Bank and submitted with its planning application. The development was designed to minimise the impact on the natural environment. It was landscaped and habitat strategies employed to develop the local woodland. The new development includes new access routes and a range of private bus services to all of the major public transport links with Edinburgh city centre, Fife and the Western Coast of Scotland, therefore minimising the impact of increased traffic congestion on the A8 road. A car-sharing scheme was introduced to reduce traffic generation further. The design of the building features a displacement ventilation system, providing fresh air to the workforce, and extensive heat reclamation, grey water recycling and sustainable urban drainage systems. The project has been designed, in accordance with the Bank's environmental policy, to address issues of sustainability and energy efficiency.
Buildability
Education
8.2 In the UK there has been a legacy of Victorian school buildings, which have been designed for classrooms designed for 'chalk and talk' and teaching areas which account for a high proportion of floor space. Primary schools are typically lofty single-storied structures with tall windows allowing natural light into the classroom. Constructed to be durable and airy, they offer energy efficient buildings 263. However, these buildings do not offer the flexibility of use required in modern day teaching where additional space is required.
8.3 The ability to allow natural light into the classroom has been incorporated into the design of the primary school at Perthcelyn in the Rhonda Valley in South Wales where all the classrooms face east 264. Other schools used shading to south-facing windows to shield students from glare.
8.4 However, these good design features do not seem to have transferred into the secondary school sector. This has been partly because of the size of the building needed to cater for the number of students, and the variety of subjects taught. At the City Technology Colleges in Bristol, UK, one of the most noticeable aspects of the building design has been the way natural light pervades the majority of spaces, including the main hall and sports hall 265. The building has retractable external blinds to reduce both heat gain and glare. The college is also a good example of street pattern 266 where the key objective of the design was to provide a main internal corridor with secondary circulation leading off into departments and other areas.
Healthcare
8.5 In 2003, CABE published Creating Excellent Buildings267 a step-by-step manual that considered the client's role under four procurement stages: prepare, design, construct and use. The case study of Lewisham Children's and Young People's Centre in London, UK, is an example of how a design competition can deliver a great building. In all the designs, generous amounts of natural light and ventilation were incorporated to enable good energy efficiency, as well as providing a comfortable and therapeutic environment. This has improved the external feel of the building, and provided views out and aided navigation within. For example, architects proposed photovoltaic cells on the roof to generate about a third of the building's electricity requirements, while the large roof expanse was designed to collect rainwater for irrigation, water features and toilet flushing. Large atria allow for natural ventilation and light. Another design uses a waterfall running through the middle of the building to obtain a sense of openness, light and space 268.
Residential properties
8.6 The Building Research Establishment's Environmental Assessment Method ( BREEAM) has been established to ensure that a number of environmental and resource efficiency standards are used in constructing new homes in the UK. New homes are given a BREEAM rating based on impacts on energy and water use, transport, pollution, materials, land use and ecology, and health and well-being 269. Meeting these aspirational targets means that the introduction of recycled/recovered materials, further behavioural change, waste minimisation and separation of wastes, are a prerequisite.
8.7 A project in the Black Country, UK, found that reducing carbon emissions by specifying materials and fittings of a higher quality led to an additional cost of a few hundred pounds ( BRE, 2003b) 270. The estimated cost of specifying low energy light fittings was £100 per unit. The Environment Agency has demonstrated that there are financial costs and benefits to residents of resource efficiency. They found that these savings to residents through reduced utility bills amounted to approximately £138 a year at a cost of £800 per home 271. The environmental case to building more sustainable homes is clear with 30 per cent of the UK's total energy use and 27 per cent of UK carbon dioxide emissions coming from households.
8.8 Several research studies have identified the following environmental impacts of urban sprawl and the transfer of people and resources from the inner city and inner-ring suburbs to regenerated sites on the city's outskirts:
- Decreased aesthetic appeal of landscape (Burchell et al, 1998) 272
- Increased risk of flooding (Adelmann, 1998, The Pennsylvania 21 st Century Environment Commission, 1999) 273 as more new housing developments have been built near marshland and trees have been cleared removing natural drainage.
- Ecosystem fragmentation (Margules and Meyes, 1992) 274
- Toxic and hazardous wastes from abandoned brownfields and landfills (Down, 1994)
- Toxins such as lead and asbestos persisting in older buildings because of disinvestment in inner cities (Bryant, 1995) 275
8.9 Trees and shrubs also reduce overall energy use in buildings. The amount of energy saved depends on the building type, choice of tree species, positioning around the building and the prevailing climate. For example, by planting deciduous trees on the west side of an exposed building, beneficial impacts would include protection from wind and cooling from shading from the trees, for example. Savings on energy costs by the careful planting of trees can, for a conventional house over a one year period, be as much as 25 per cent 276.
8.10 Other research has identified the planting of trees as being good interceptors of solar reflection and radiation from buildings and streets. The cooling effect of an isolated mature tree transpiring 450 litres per day from its leaves has been estimated to be equivalent to 5 average size room air conditioners running 20 hours per day 277. Another environmental benefit of planting trees is improved air quality. Trees have been found to reduce airborne particulate matter by as much as 75 per cent 278 and produce oxygen during photosynthesis. For example, a 24m tall beech tree with a crown diameter of 15m has been shown to produce enough oxygen for 10 people to breath 279.
8.11 There is also an argument being posed in the research review that demolition of old buildings uses more energy than refurbishing it. Demolition and construction accounts for 24 per cent of the total annual waste produced in the UK280. In Built to Last - The Sustainable Reuse of Buildings (The Heritage Council, 2004) 281, the research found that the costs of maintaining and occupying a Victorian terraced house, when considered over a 100-year period, are almost 30 per cent cheaper than those of a house built in the 1980's. Similarly a study carried out in Ireland showed that a refurbished existing building performs better in environmental terms than a hypothetical newly constructed building on the same site 282.
Commercial buildings
8.12 In the case of the MOD Abbey Wood, the environmental green agenda has been achieved through displacement ventilation facilities which operated in 'mixed mode' and with 'heat recovery', a cooling and dehumidification of system supply air when needed in high summer, and active static cooling by chilled panels where necessary to offset heat from user equipment 283. The windows have glare control using inter-pane blinds, and the heating is adjustable depending on outside temperature and internal heat radiation from users and equipment.
8.13 A study conducted by Environment Canada in Toronto (2002) estimated that urban temperatures could dip by 1 to 2 degrees centigrade if just 6 per cent of the city's rooftops were green 284. The benefits associated with having green roofs include reducing air humidity, helping in cleansing of the air and water, and processing of rainwater back into the atmosphere. Green roofs in Europe have been found to have lasted between 40 and 75 years. Common theory holds that roof life can be at least doubled or tripled because the multiple layers protect waterproofing membrane and structural elements from damaging ultraviolet rays, wind and temperature fluctuation extremes 285.
8.14 Singapore has gone further to stem future increases in energy costs and environmental taxation by reducing both the energy consumption and the environmental impact of a building. Energy taxes have already been introduced, where tax was imposed on the thermal conductivity of the building. This tax represents a significant proportion of the occupancy costs 286.
8.15 From the outset, the Barbirolli Square development in Manchester, UK, was constructed to be energy efficient, through the provision of low-emissivity glass and bicycle storage 287.
Public spaces
8.16 The affect of urban sprawl has an impact on local wildlife habitats with new housing estates being built on open spaces and city centre fringes. In order to replace these habitats, building designs should include green spaces, parks or gardens to assist wildlife conservation. For example, green roofs in London, UK, provide foraging habitat for the black redstart, a rare species of bird 288. Studies have shown that birds would travel up to 19 stories of a building in search of food and habitat, therefore, encouraging biodiversity in an urban area 289.
Context
Residential properties
8.17 One of the major consequences of urban sprawl and property prices is the necessity of people who have moved to new out of town developments to travel out of the areas in which they work. The main mode of transport used tends to be the car. An increase of more than 250 per cent has been experienced from 1960 through to 1997 290. A similar study in the US has shown that the average American driver spends 443 hours each year behind the wheel 291. This increase in driving time results in an increase in air pollution and in the incidence of respiratory diseases. Research presented on the impact of automobiles and the transportation sector on human health was made at the Third Ministerial Conference on Environment and Health held in London in 1999. It was stated that approximately 36,000 to 129,000 adult deaths a year could be attributed to long-term exposure to air pollution generated by traffic in European cities 292. Also at the conference, the results of research from Austria, France and Switzerland were presented. These studies found that air pollution caused 6 per cent of total mortality in the three countries, more than 40,000 deaths per year.
Commercial buildings
8.18 The Brindley Place development in Birmingham, UK, demonstrates how good connectivity, transport links and mixed use correlated with successful inward investment, social and economic outcomes and sustainable regeneration 293.
8.19 Pfizer's new headquarters in Walton Oaks, Surrey, UK, has been widely regarded as a model of good relocation practice, achieving a green campus objective. It is environmentally conscious, with staff being awarded a cash incentive for leaving their cars at home 294.
8.20 The MOD Abbey Wood case study 295, has an important feature to consider when looking at the performance of the building in terms of travel to work emissions. Travel to work emissions represent a significant proportion of total UK emissions and cutting them is of equal importance, especially as present trends show them to be increasing. This is a constant theme throughout the research where a company relocated to Greenfield site outside of major city centre increasing the use of the car to get to work.
8.21 Travel to work also impacts on the quality of life and personal productivity. On average, we spend between 8 and 10 per cent of our lives on getting to work, making it a doubly important concern of a building's ancillary performance in meeting its users' needs.
8.22 The BP Sunbury buildings demonstrate how a company can contribute towards reducing carbon emissions in the environment through affecting transport patterns. A BP-sponsored bus route with a service from local rail station has resulted in a 5 per cent cut in travel to work emissions 296. The company has gone further by introducing BPHIVES (Highly Interactive Visual Environment Suites) video conferencing units, saving 125 air miles per person per year. Productivity was found to increase by more than 5 per cent; carbon dioxide emissions have been cut by 80 per cent, and energy costs have gone down by more than $2.74 million per year. The implementation of the HIVE has led to a reduction in climate change emissions of the building in operation. These can be quantified in terms of the building's progress towards achieving a climate or carbon neutral status, which required at least a 60 per cent cut from today's emissions.
Public spaces
8.23 The benefits of green spaces have been summarised in a literature review undertaken by Swanwick et al (2001) 297. In the research, Swanwick (2001) found that green space contributed to several environmental impacts, such as, air quality by 17 per cent, climate amelioration by reducing the negative effects that close buildings have on wind and heat anomalies in urban areas, habitat and biodiversity gains, water management, and reduction in noise levels. The findings are inconclusive but supported by other research in this area 298.
8.24 In 1995, a study 299 of mobility within the city of Hasselt in Limburg, Belgium, identified the need to ease traffic congestion. Instead of building a new ring road, the mayor decided to restore an existing inner ring road to a boulevard. The city centre population had declined over time and there was a high instance of road traffic accidents in the area. The restoration of the Green Boulevard would rejuvenate the area and attract people back into the city centre. The sustainable Mobility Plan was devised to reduce the need for car dependency in the city centre. This has led to investment in a regular and reliable bus service, which is free of charge. The fare-free service allows bus drivers to focus on customer care rather than on the collection of fares. Passenger numbers have increased 10-fold.
8.25 The Green Boulevard initiative, provided commuters with an alternative means to get to work, with improved pedestrian and cycle routes. The city ranks among the highest for car ownership, but the lowest use, with 16 per cent of former car owners taking the bus. In environmental terms, there was no loss of natural habitat to make way for the new road, and pollution was reduced due to the reduced traffic. More green space was made available and 400 trees were planted enhancing the air quality of the city. Around 800 low-cost underground parking spaces were built and street parking costs remained high to deter car users from driving into the city centre. Hasselt, Belgium, has seen an increase in the number of people wanting to move back into the city centre, rejuvenating the once run down area.
8.26 This case study highlighted both economic and environmental impacts of restoring existing roads, instead building new roads to alleviate congestion.
Continuity and enclosure
Residential properties
8.27 A study in Brisbane, Australia, compared street vitality and travel behaviour in gated and non-gated communities. It revealed that those living outside gated communities travel around them rather than through them, increasing their journey times and increasing the number of cars on the road 300.
Diversity
8.28 There is a current debate about where new housing should be built - Brownfield or Greenfield sites. It has been asserted that Brownfield sites offer many opportunities for wildlife in the city. For example, at Clifton Backies in York, UK, there is a 12-hectare stretch of scrubby woodland with clearings, which contains a diversity of flowers, birds and other wildlife. This area of land is high-valued by the local community 301.
8.29 In recent years, over 1,500 species of flowering plant and 300 types of bird have been spotted in London's parks and green spaces. This has impacted on the urban environment by sustaining biodiversity and reducing the amount of surface water run-off, moderated air temperature and offset harmful emissions 302.
8.30 Research in Tel Aviv, Israel, similarly points to the benefits of trees. It was shown that the presence of trees results in a cooling of the air temperature of between 1ûC, in a heavily trafficked street, to 4ûC in the smallest garden. The study also found that the shape of the green area has an impact on cooling, and that the cooling effect can be felt up to 100 metres from the site 303. This has been supported by Swedish research that found that small parks up to two hectares facilitated cooling of the surrounding areas by two degrees 304. Similar research in the UK has found similar results. Whitford's (2001) study showed that places with greatest number of trees have better carbon-storage capacity and lower level of surface water running off into drains, which allow sewers to cope better with water-flow and minimising flood problems. The research also found that the temperature is 7ûC cooler where the vegetation cover is 50 per cent compared to areas where the vegetation cover is only 15 per cent 305.
8.31 The benefits of planting trees also extended to reducing pollutants in the air. They have been found to cleanse the air of both particulate and gaseous air pollutants. For example, a tree-lined street has 10 - 15 per cent less dust in the air than none tree-lined streets 306.
Ease of movement
8.32 Several research studies have shown that good public transport reduces levels of traffic. For example, the implementation of a public transport system in Strasbourg increased the use of public transport by 43 per cent 307 and reduced the usage of privately owned cars. If designed with an integrated pedestrian friendly network of cycle paths and walkways, this could potentially reduce traffic generation further.
8.33 In the US, the car has been the dominant means of travel for most urban trips other than highly local short trips because of the distance and geography of suburban neighbourhoods. The car gives people valuable mobility under free-flowing traffic conditions, but many observers, including the US Environmental Protection Agency, note that the mobility offered by the car may be outweighed by the negative impact of traffic generation and increased pollution 308. However, the reduction in traffic due to a good public transport system will only work if people support a frequent and reliable service.
8.34 The Waterfront in Dudley, UK, adopted good quality public spaces around the heart of the development onto the canal, with large areas of traffic calmed and pedestrianised space, good sense of safety and high quality soft landscaping to provide a safe, attractive and functional public space 309. By designing around the average distance that most people would walk on a daily basis and building local amenities close to residential neighbourhoods, researchers have suggested that this would reduce the use of private transport 310. However, other research undertaken by Cervero and Radisch (1996) showed that these improvements do not necessary mean that car ownership would be reduced 311. A study (Frank, 2003) showed that walking for non-work purposes most highly correlates with the number of shops, restaurants and office buildings within 400 metres of a person's home 312.
8.35 A reduction on the dependence on cars, increased use of public transport, walking and cycling (Countryside Agency, 2005) have been found to be achieved through new and improved networks of footpaths, cycle ways, parks, woodlands and other green spaces 313.
Quality of the public realm
8.36 Traffic calming strategies have been adopted to reduce traffic speed and provide pedestrian friendly areas, which encourage walking and cycling. However, research has found that this only works where the connection is highly visible, otherwise, only people who already know the area can take advantage of them 314. These walkable environments also offer health benefits. They also reduce the public costs associated with car use, such as traffic congestion and the provision of road and parking facilities. There are also positive impacts for local retailers because of the higher pedestrian traffic.
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