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Section 7: Economic
Vision and character
7.1 From the review, it was evident that vision and character was an important facet of a building's or development's design. Indeed one of the first principles of urban design is cited as being "promote character in townscape and landscape by responding to and reinforcing locally distinctive patterns of development and culture" 146. The following examples illustrated how vision and character of buildings and places have contributed to economic impact.
7.2 Dundee Contemporary Arts ( DCA), Scotland, resulted from a competition set by the City of Dundee Council in 1996. The vision for the building was to have all activities - galleries, cinemas, print workshops, shop and research facilities, around a central social space and café. The DCA café and foyer sit at the internal corner of the L-shaped building, and therefore, at the heart of the building in plan and operation. The DCA has introduced some welcome cultural life to the centre, sparse of art venues. Westbrook's report (2003) assessed the economic impact of DCA on the local community of Dundee and Tayside three years after its opening in March 1999. Based on the research, the recorded visitor numbers within DCA had exceeded 300,000 in each of its first three financial years. Of these, Tayside residents represented approximately 60% of all exhibition visitors in 2001/02. The One Five Two shop generated a turnover of £72,000 in 2001/02, of which crafts accounted for 39.5%. Several local craft producers benefit from supplying the shop, which helped to promote their work. Community and education work is a significant part of DCA's activity, although the ability to meet demand has been constrained by staffing and finance. The Jute Café had a turnover of £120,095 in 2001/03. DCA can also be attributed to creating 258 jobs in the Tayside area, whether through direct employment or business development 147. Finally, the distinctiveness of DCA has grown through the architect's vision in making the building part of the city as a whole. The use of windows allowed both light to come into the building and allow visitors to look out onto Dundee.
7.3 Similar examples, such as the Tate Gallery in St Ives, Cornwall, UK, and New Art Gallery in Walsall, UK, both demonstrated the economic benefits of having a landmark cultural building in the community. Within the first two years of opening, the Tate Gallery in St Ives contributed £16 million to the local economy through tourism 148. In the first few months of the opening of the New Art Gallery in Walsall, the local Boots store reported that their daily sales increased by £4,000 149.
7.4 The Summerfield Centre in Winson Green in Birmingham, UK, has provided educational and training opportunities for local people. The building is a local landmark and has been refurnished to a high standard and has become a source of local pride.
7.5 An independent survey conducted by FPD Savills, an international property consultant, in 2002 indicated that higher quality design in residential schemes yielded a residual value per hectare of up to 15% more than conventionally designed schemes 150.
7.6 In the US study, Value of Parks 151, the proximity to landmarks created higher property prices. In San Francisco, USA, the proximity to the Golden Gate Bridge doubled property values and generated $5-10 million dollars for the Government in annual property taxes. Some researchers believe that the quality of the building is not sufficient to increase marketability values but a poorly designed home in a popular location is likely to be important.
Appearance
Education
7.7 The visual environment has shown to have a positive impact on pupil motivation which had led to increased student performance. A recent study by PricewaterhouseCoopers (2000) examined the relationship between student performance and teaching quality 152. The research also identified that teaching quality and level of staff morale had been the predominant influence on pupil attainment. Another factor that contributed to the higher levels of motivation was the aesthetic appearance of the built environment, with students having more pride in their environment.
7.8 In Fraser's US study (1993), he examined the impact on student performance where the physical environment improved from poor to excellent. The study showed that students over the period increased their performance measured in terms of test scores by 10.9 per cent 153. Similar research 154 in the US showed significant improvements in student performance including greater levels of motivation and energy levels leading to reduced absenteeism. Similar studies in France have shown that students' perform better in a well-designed building as opposed to those in poorly designed school building.
Commercial buildings
7.9 Aesthetic form can be a major factor in the design of workplaces to enhance a sense of identity in employees and it has become a way for companies to enforce their corporate brand. For example, the interior of the Dyson Research and Appliances Headquarters in Malmesbury, England, has been deliberately styled in a lilac and yellow colour scheme which matches the company's brand image 155. In addition, all Hilton hotels' interior foyer area has been designed to be recognisable as a 'Hilton'.
7.10 The new UK headquarters of Japanese car maker Toyota made explicit visual reference to the automotive industry in its curved forms, crisp metallic finishes and spacious interior vistas. The overriding impression was the company's brand ethos being instilled in its employees from the moment they start work 156. Reebok International headquarters in the US was designed to bring 1,000 staff together in one building where they are inspired to improve their creativity and productivity 157. In both cases, the company wanted to provide employees with a sense of identity with the products they are manufacturing.
7.11 When asked which factors would affect the choice of where to locate a business, 98% of managers chose 'pleasant environment and architecture' as their top priority 158. In similar research conducted by Vandell and Lane (1989) 159, they examined over 100 office buildings and found a positive correlation between design quality and market rents. The better the quality of design, the higher the marketability of properties within the building and area.
7.12 Good buildings also have the power to uplift morale 160 which leads to less staff sickness and absenteeism, and have a positive impact on the retention of staff, which leads to increased productivity and creativity. Vanson and Bourne (2005) found that the aesthetic appearance of the workplace could provide an environment which is inspiring and stimulating. This is achieved through providing an environment with a combination of the familiar and unfamiliar; natural and hi-tech elements, tactile surfaces, mood-enhancing lighting and sound, standard and unusual furnishings. This all contributed to helping to create a fun working environment, generating energy and enthusiasm 161. The case study conducted by Vanson Bourne consisted of 200 middle and senior management interviews in the UK drawn at random from legal, media and financial services sectors.
Buildability
7.13 The buildability of a building may be considerably improved by adopting a 'loose fit' approach 162. This is finding a balance between what building materials are used and building services for ease of installation, speed of construction, simplified maintenance and greater flexibility for future adaptations. This approach may also speed up the construction period, and therefore, reduce the rolled-up interest costs accumulated during this period. On large projects, this may represent around 25 to 30 per cent of the overall cost during the construction phase 163.
Education
7.14 The Jubilee Campus, University of Nottingham in England was designed as a sustainable building and this has translated into the materials used both in the exterior and interior of the building. The central focus of the campus is the conical library with its prominent ventilation towers 164. A survey of staff at the university revealed that the cosmetic and environmental features of the buildings, such as cleanliness, a feeling of space and aesthetic appeal, had been an influential factor in the staff recruitment process. The survey also polled students' opinions on what attracted them to the university, and found that structural and functional features, such as modern design, the quality of the facilities and types of materials used were the main factors, with 63 per cent of students citing this as a major reason for choosing Nottingham 165. The findings of the research is supported by Edwards' (2000) 166 and provided some evidence to link building design and recruitment, retention and performance of staff and students in the higher education sector. It does not, however, attempt to measure the quality of the design or the negative impacts which can result from design inadequacies.
7.15 A study carried out by PricewaterhouseCoopers (2000) for the Department for Education and Skills examined the relationship between capital investment in schools and pupil performance. It found that capital investment in school buildings had the strongest influence on staff morale, pupil motivation and effective learning time 167. The study highlighted one school where the design of playgrounds and the school hall had enabled a reduction of lunchtime assistants from 8 to 5. This represented a saving in resources which could be switched to direct educational expenditure 168.
Healthcare
7.16 The £60m Evelina Children's Hospital, in London, by Michael Hopkins, was funded by the Guy's and St Thomas's charity. The building of the hospital represented a pioneering piece of design with a brief to the designers to "make it not feel like a hospital" 169. As a result the building does not feel institutional but has become a child-centred building with every floor named after a different area of the natural world, with jolly colours and patterns, and a cone-shaped, shiny plastic helter-skelter in the foyer. The design of the building has taken previous evidence that a well-designed, agreeable hospital environment helps people to recover faster, its attention to detail extending to making the ceilings in the wards pleasant to look at, as the majority of the patient's time is spent staring at the ceiling.
Residential property
7.17 The review findings highlighted the need to use energy efficient materials and incorporate these in the design of buildings, making them cost-effective to run in the long term 170 and reducing utility bills with a potential knock-on effect of reducing the number people and households in fuel and water poverty 171.
7.18 In 1997, Scottish Homes sponsored a competition for the creation of a sustainable housing development. The Glenalmond Street estate located in Shettleston, Glasgow, consisted of 16 flats and houses, some of which were privately owned under a shared-ownership scheme, with the others rented through the Shettleston Housing Association. A pre-letting process was initiated with a tenant group, who got involved in discussions on the design of the homes. This has led to a low resident turnover rate and an absence of vandalism on the estate. The innovative heating system, which was designed to work with low water temperatures, has resulted in reduced utility bills, with one tenant reporting a 60 per cent per month reduction. The sustainable design approach to the development also included higher insulation standards, and avoiding PVC, as well higher levels of passive solar gain, and recycled materials 172.
Commercial buildings
7.19 The Pearson Education Headquarters in Harlow, England (Rouse, 2000) 173 case study demonstrated how the design for purpose has actually been achieved. The company was trying to balance a need to satisfy requirements of the property investment market with a desire to create a space that would foster greater communication and creativity in staff, accommodate increased use of IT, be easy to maintain and cheap to run, and be a pleasure to work in. The building was constructed as a mix of five and six storeys, set around one large central atrium and two smaller atria. The west and east blocks are separately lettable, and one of these blocks was let for a time to a major supermarket chain. It has been regarded as a very green building with natural ventilation, external solar shades and maximum use of natural light. Assessed under the BREEAM energy scheme, the building achieved 20 out of a possible 21 credits - unequalled at the time of assessment.
7.20 In all of Rouse's case studies 174, there was a strong recognition of the corporate benefits to be gained from architectural investment. There was further recognition that these benefits represented a mix of tangible and intangible benefits, some of which would fit within a traditional quantitative cost-benefit analysis, others which were more difficult to measure. The overarching finding was that the companies in the study primarily wanted their buildings to support their own business process, whether these are concerned with generating wealth or providing a service. To do so effectively, they must create an environment where people feel motivated to give their best.
It is not that the company does not care about end value, but it is secondary. Because this building is not re-lettable to the world and its wife, it is wholly and specifically designed to meet RARE's working requirements.
( RARE Case Study, Rouse 2000) 175
7.21 In the case of RARE, the computer games developer, the company believed that the new headquarters in Twycross, England, needed to provide an environment whereby their employees could be creative. The design of the building used a mix of shapes and materials - wood, copper, glass, concrete, red brick and Welsh slate. There was no air conditioning and the building replicated a country manor. It also incorporated water recycling and was energy efficient which was built into the design from the outset.
7.22 This was a view shared by Duffy (1997) in his study of how initial investment in customised architecture and design can often be recouped within a few years, after which savings on office rents and greater productivity come into their own. Duffy cited in his study the example of Andersen Worldwide, whose investment in tailor-made design for their newly occupied buildings in Chicago, USA, achieved a 30% reduction in space that would have been used by conventional layout designs. This space-saving design meant that the company had overall savings on rent and occupancy costs paying for the initial capital outlay within four years 176.
7.23 More recently, Pearson (2000) examined the ten winners of the annual design awards which focused on the benefits of good design 177. The awards illustrated the growing awareness of the value of good design in both architecture and the public realm. For example, in a new design of a manufacturing facility, the layout encouraged greater interaction among design and production teams, and as a result, both quality assurance and adherence to schedules improved. In another example, he cited a report on a new fifteen storey building in Japan with 'lushly planted terraces' which reported a 20% reduction in heating and cooling costs over their budgeted predictions. The building, fronting a major urban open space, was designed to reflect the greenery of the park it faced. The potential ongoing cost savings inherent in the good design meant that the company saved a significant amount of money in terms of winning the contract and ongoing maintenance costs 178. Although, Pearson's findings are not conclusive, it has been generally accepted that good design is an investment that produces benefits over time.
Context
Education
7.24 More recent research conducted by CABE in July 2003 found that the existence of well-designed buildings on a campus is a significant factor in the recruitment of staff (65 per cent) and of students (72 per cent) 179. In the same study, the Portland Building School of the Environment, University of Portsmouth in England, was found to be a catalyst for the development of a new campus and the regeneration of one of the poorest parts of Portsmouth 180.
Residential property
7.25 The University of Bristol carried out a survey of 600 households on a large suburban housing estate with little or no distinctive design quality. The researchers found that these residents exhibited more difficulties in selling and experienced more negative equity than those living on more distinctively designed developments 181.
Commercial buildings
7.26 The British Airways Waterside building is situated near Heathrow airport in London, and provided the company with an opportunity to move to a single purpose-built headquarters. A stream flows down the length of the internal street, before emerging outside and flowing into a large lake set in 280 acres of restored parkland accessible by the local community. The Waterside development cost £200 million, and the company estimated an average £15 million per year in savings through increased productivity and lower running costs 182.
Healthcare
7.27 The role of architecture and design has been at the heart of the new Lewisham Children and Young People's Centre development, and has been recognised as a model for future delivery of primary care. Being aware of the therapeutic properties of well-designed buildings and their positive impact on staff and patients, the Trust wanted not just a new building but one that would positively contribute to the urban environment and provide an increased sense of place and local identity for people who live nearby 183.
Public spaces
7.28 In research carried out for CABE, 85 per cent of people surveyed felt that the quality of public space and the built environment has a direct impact on their lives, and on the way they feel. The research also highlighted the positive impact on the price of nearby residential property, of well-planned and well-managed public spaces 184.
7.29 In the towns of Emmen, Appledoorn and Leiden in the Netherlands, it has been shown that a garden bordering water can increase the price of a house by 11 per cent, while a view of water or having a lake nearby can boost the price by 10 per cent, and 7 per cent respectively. A view of a park was shown to raise house prices by 8 per cent, and having a park nearby by 6 per cent. This compares with a view of an apartment block, which can reduce the price by 7 per cent 185.
7.30 In Berlin in 2000, proximity to playgrounds in residential areas was found to increase land values by up to 16 per cent. In the same study, a high number of street trees resulted in an increase of 17 per cent in land values 186. This positive impact on property values has been reflected in similar studies in Dallas, USA, where many residents cited the public green spaces running behind their property as a major factor and reason for living in a particular area. Sixty per cent of the residents believed that the value of their homes was at least 15 per cent higher because of the proximity of the green spaces to their properties 187.
7.31 It has not only been residential properties that benefit from being close to public spaces, it has been shown that retailers also benefit, as the public spaces attracted more people into the area by 40 per cent. In Coventry in England, improved pedestrianisation, a new civic square, clearer signage and better placement of street furniture, the introduction of CCTV and radio security schemes has made the city centre a much safer place to be. As a result, footfall in the town centre has risen by 25 per cent on Saturdays, benefiting local trade 188, as a result of improving the city centre and making the place feel more safe.
Operation
Education
7.32 Employee satisfaction and work performance in schools has improved retention, recruitment and performance of students. For almost all of us, schools are the first buildings we experience without the security of parental support. At best, well-designed schools should enhance our experience of learning, contribute to scholastic achievement, stimulate interest in the built environment, and discourage truancy and vandalism 189. Factors which contributed to increased academic performance were lighting levels, air quality and temperature and acoustics 190.
7.33 Jago and Tanner (1999) highlighted the use of colour in their study of reducing absenteeism and promotion of positive feeling about school amongst US students 191. They found that colour affected student performances, and careful colour selection could generate greater motivation and energy levels. They also recommended at least 20% of wall space be devoted to windows to allow natural light into the classroom, as the lack of it will be detrimental on student performances 192.
7.34 Other US studies have highlighted high student density as a major factor which effects pupil performance. For example, schools with more than 100 square feet of area per child tend to perform better than those schools with less 193. This is especially evident in special needs schools.
7.35 The majority of research into the correlation between building attributes and pupils' examination performances, and the effect of daylight on students' overall performance at school, has been conducted by US researchers. Heschong Mahone Group (1999) analysed the test score results of over 21,000 students from three school districts in California, US. It found that students with the most natural day lighting in their classrooms progressed 20 per cent faster on maths tests and 26 per cent on reading tests in one year than those with the least natural light 194. This has been the view supported by the American Architectural Foundation (2004) 195. They also stated that the lack of daylight and ventilation in the classroom dulls the senses needed for mental work, which makes concentration for students difficult. Teachers have identified that the effects of different lighting and acoustics of classrooms affect the performance and behaviour of pupils. Poor lighting particularly has a negative impact on pupils with sensory impairment 196.
7.36 Researchers have gone as far as suggesting that the colour of surroundings might have an impact on mood and behaviour in the classroom 197. Hamid and Newport (1989) suggested that pink coloured walls in pre-school would encourage a more positive mood in children 198. Maxwell (2000) found that children thought colour was important whilst parents and teachers were not concerned by the colour of the walls 199. A common compliant in the classroom is eye fatigue and in order to relieve this, Engelbrecht (2003) suggested using different colour walls behind the teacher 200. This idea was also offered by Pile (1997) 201 and Brubaker (1998) 202.
7.37 There is also evidence 203 that inadequate temperature control, air quality and acoustics had detrimental effects on concentration, mood, well-being, attendance and attainment of children in schools. This included Schneider's (2002) 204 and Earthman's (2004) 205 research that concluded that good acoustics are fundamental to good academic performance.
7.38 Research conducted for CABE (2000) found that the modern design of the building and size of the teaching rooms also had an effect on student retention and recruitment of students 206. The report also noted that modern schools had to cope with more students, and more subjects are being taught. However, this has not been matched by an equivalent expansion in higher education estates 207. This research suggested that smaller schools were better for children's learning, as they found more time and opportunities to participate in activities and develop socially.
7.39 European studies by Alt (2000) 208 found that the integration of design and technology in French colleges can contribute towards a learning environment, which is conducive to improving student academic performance. For example, Baccalaureat achieved a success rate of 84% compared to the national average of 78%.
7.40 Price et al (2003) 209 also found that cleanliness of the accommodation was important to a number of students, and the availability of quiet areas for study was also ranked as being an important factor.
Healthcare
7.41 Jonassen (1995) found that the noise levels, light, and air quality also contribute positively to hospital effectiveness 210. Carver (1990) claimed that this was caused by poorly designed and over-crowded patient care areas. The lack of these manifests itself in the form of nurses' feelings of frustration leading to increased medical errors, staff dissatisfaction and negative attitudes, often taken out on patients and increased patient violence 211. A literature review of 600 hospitals in the USA by Ulrich 212 into the impact of design upon clinical outcomes showed that noise and its effect, sunlight, exterior views and ergonomics increased efficiency of the workforce in terms of delivering patient care and safety.
7.42 Studies by Scher & Senior (1999) highlighted the benefits of displaying visual art in hospitals to affect staff morale and patient care 213. This was an important consideration when designing the Chelsea and Westminster hospital in London.
7.43 In a study undertaken in the US214, the economic impact of efficient design of hospitals has been measured in terms of cost savings in the reduction of staff turnover and reduction of patient stays of $10.18 million per year. Other research undertaken by CABE (2003) supports these findings - 91% of nurses and 100% of Directors of Nursing believed that a well-designed environment has been related to patient recovery rates; 87% of nurses say that working in a well designed hospital would help them to do their job better; good design improves the service and patients perceive the service as being better 215. Mazurch (2001) found in his study that a clear plan with a natural progression from public to treatment rooms was necessary to avoid hospitals becoming disorienting places 216. The internal design of wards to allow for flexibility in use was an important contributor to nursing efficiency 217.
7.44 Brown et al (1997) 218 highlighted the importance of 'wayfinding'. 64 per cent of staff in one paediatric hospital said that wayfinding requests from visitors disrupted their work, with staff being interrupted up to 100 times a week for directions. Other research 219 has claimed that wayfinding issues have led to violence directed towards staff from confused and frustrated patients and visitors.
Residential properties
7.45 Greater use of energy efficient resources in residential homes would reduce operational costs in terms of lower energy bills with a knock-on effect of a reduction in the number people and households in fuel and water poverty 220.
Commercial buildings
7.46 A difference in productivity as high as 25%, has been reported between comfortable and uncomfortable staff. People cannot work at their best if they are distracted by not being able to breathe, hear and see properly. The most important factors in achieving health and comfort are air quality, overall comfort, noise and temperature 221. In a US study examining the link between improved air quality and productivity, it was concluded that the increase that resulted from directly improving air quality could be as much as $55 billion per annum 222 from an initial investment of $120 billion cost of bringing the indoor air quality of all commercial buildings in the US up to accepted indoor air quality practices.
7.47 The design of the office building has been shown to play a very significant part in improving job satisfaction. This satisfaction impacts primarily on the performance and efficiency of the workforce by affecting their work and psychological well-being. The causes of these impacts are through comfort of the workforce in terms of furniture, temperature and design of the office environment, quality of lighting and air.
7.48 Dyson Research and Appliances Headquarters in Malmesbury is an example of how flexibility of use has improved the efficiency of the organisation 223. The organisation was able to build in flexibility of the space allowing the organisation to combine research, development, manufacturing, distribution and management functions in a number of different ways.
7.49 The ability to increase creativity from staff, enhanced business performance, improved staff recruitment and retention has left many companies to adopt 'extreme spaces' to stimulate ideas and provoke an attitude shift towards office space.
7.50 A more casual and open working environment engenders communication, collaboration and idea generation. Vanson and Bourne (2005) research demonstrated how the design of the workplace can help stimulate creativity and the ability to attract and retain the best staff, and improve organisational agility 224. However, other research has showed that a balance needs to be achieved in the way the space is arranged. The challenge has been in the finding of a balance between communication and concentration, responding to the needs of the company and the individual.
7.51 Numerous studies have shown the relative importance to users of lighting, temperature and air quality control. The MOD Abbey Wood case study demonstrated how a company used an intelligent lighting control system which identified the amount of daylight entering the room. Artificial light from the luminaries, then supplement the natural light, without the need for light switches. The cost for the installation was £225,000 and the operational costs measured over the first two years of full use yielded a saving of £156,000 per year in energy costs 225.
7.52 Vandell and Lane (1989) examined over 100 office buildings and found positive correlation between design quality and market rents, and took tentative steps towards establishing a grading system for design dividend that could be identified and to a limited extent measured in financial terms 226.
Character
Commercial buildings
7.53 Prestige and image were important factors for occupiers, particularly those with clients visiting their offices. Occupiers at Brindleyplace, Barbirolli Square and Castle Wharf in the UK, rated their developments highly and were proud to invite clients to their offices, and believed that the environment around the building contributed to the image clients had of the company 227. It has been claimed that developments such as these have helped to create jobs, although there have been counter arguments that these new jobs may be in fact be relocations rather than new jobs. But, all the examples provided not only commercial benefits but led to the development of a retail sector and leisure industry in the surrounding areas.
It's all about the regeneration of the local area and restoring people's pride in their community. The kinds of services on offer at the centre are a lifeline to many members of the local community.
Cathy Jones, Summerfield Centre in Winson Green, Birmingham 228
Public space
7.54 Queen Square in Bristol, UK, has been a case in point on how the restoration of a public space can have an economic impact on its surrounding area. Completed in 1727, the Square represented the affluence of the merchants and the city of Bristol. In 1936, city planners decided to build a dual carriageway, known as Redcliffe Way, diagonally from one corner of the square to the other as part of a new inner relief road. By 1990, around one third of the office space was vacant, and the Queen Square was in disrepair. Today, supported by a regeneration grant by English Heritage, the square has been restored to its 19 th Century former character, as a quiet, restful place. Access to the square, seating and lighting were improved and a comprehensive 10-year maintenance regime introduced. A programme of varied events was developed to promote the square as a major civic space. The area has become popular with residents and businesses with properties facing onto the square commanding a 16 per cent premium over identical properties located elsewhere in Bristol. However, this has the negative affect of forcing current residents out of the area. Increased property values have not filtered through to adjacent streets to the square. This could be because of the enclosed nature of Queen Square 229.
Continuity and enclosure
Public space
7.55 Mesnes Park in St Helens, UK, opened in 1926 and was a source of local civic pride. When the borough hit hard times, the parks and green spaces fell into disrepair. Fear of crime cast an intimidating shadow over Mesnes Park, which had been known to the local population as 'Smack Park'. Through regeneration funding, the park was extended from 5 to 8.5 hectares as new woodlands and a wildflower meadow were added and a footpath network was re-established to offer public footpaths and views over the whole park. The impact of the redevelopment has been to re-establish the use of the park with an increase in people using the park from 15,000 to 180,000 people.
7.56 The case studies 230 showed that there was a positive relationship between increased residential property prices, where the property overlooked or was in close proximity to a high quality park. This link is not in isolation, but varied according to the type of park; the layout of property; the nature of the location; to some extent the nature of the local population and the type of property involved 231.
Diversity
Commercial buildings
7.57 Arlington Securities has built an £800 million business park portfolio around the concept of locating business premises in high quality green spaces. It consistently devoted 30 per cent of its sites to communal parkland. The company has seen its rental income almost quadruple to £38 million within four years to the end of 2002 with more companies moving out of city centres. In addition, tenants are happy to pay a charge to cover the costs of servicing buildings, plots and communal spaces 232.
7.58 What the literature does not show is a definitive answer to the debate over the design impact of open plan or private space. Vanson Bourne (2005) highlighted the benefits of having a combination of both private offices and team working spaces, where staff can choose the buzz or stimulation they need to work at their best 233. The debate surrounded the increase or decrease of communication, with some saying that there was an increase due to the lack of barriers and walls, and others saying it reduced the lack of privacy and distractions.
Public Space
7.59 Canary Wharf's Jubilee Park, London, UK has been instrumental in turning perceptions of the area around it into a location actively sought out by corporate employers and office workers 234. The park has been designed to disguise the crossfall of land and conceal the station and retail mall beneath. It has also been designed to allow workers from their office buildings to look down into the park. The park has also become a destination place for local workers, visitors and residents, as a place to relax, increasing the park's usage from 2,000 to 20,000. The area has also stayed open until 1am, allowing people to enjoy the local bars and restaurants. At roughly £55 per square foot, the cost of creating the park can be offset with the increased interest of companies wanting to relocate to Canary Wharf, such as legal practices, Allen & Overy and Clifford Chance 235.
7.60 Examples of public places that provide a varied environment offering a range of uses and experiences are Castle Wharf (Nottingham, UK), Brindleyplace (Birmingham, UK), and Barbirolli Square (Manchester, UK). All these developments provide a mixed use environment, with offices, restaurants, shops, leisure and a good range of activities and a mix of public and private spaces. These developments have created vibrant areas offering a pleasant and attractive environment for workers, residents and visitors. At Brindleyplace and Barbirolli Square, the design of the surrounding environment was directly credited with increasing the productivity of the workforce, in large part due to the happier work environment created. At Castle Wharf, two commercial occupiers had surveyed their workforce and found that health and satisfaction was better, absenteeism and staff turnover less and productivity higher 236.
7.61 Restoration of national heritage sites has been a major contributor to the regeneration of the Jewellery Quarter in Birmingham, UK. It helped to sustain and create jobs in the local community and converted a once derelict area into a thriving centre for the manufacture and retail of jewellery, with 6,000 people employed by 1,500 businesses 237.
7.62 The regeneration of Bryant Park, New York resulted in increased use of the park and perceived increase in the quality of life in the area; the regeneration project is now a model for other urban public regeneration schemes and illustrates the value of good design and the benefits of focusing on user needs 238. The adverse affect of regeneration tends to be the increase in market and property development which increases property prices and drives out local communities, and overcrowding, parking problems and general reduction in quality of living 239. A prevailing element of regenerated areas has been the creation of mixed use developments for business and leisure which tends to regenerate adjacent sites.
7.63 Research has shown that the marketability and value of residential and commercial property has increased where the development had green space in the adjoining area or nearby. A well known example is Birkenhead Park in Merseyside, UK, where the renovation of the public park has been a catalyst for investment 240. More recently, a research study by Greater London Authority in the UK, found that a 1% increase of green space led to an average house price increase of between 0.3-0.5% within one London ( UK) ward 241. Similar research in Netherlands 242 and Germany 243, highlighted positive impacts on property prices where the garden bordered water, or had a view of water, or by or near a park. On the other hand, property prices suffered if the view was obscured by an apartment block.
7.64 A good example of the usage of public spaces has been the annual New Year's Eve 'First Night' festival in Boston, US, which has been seen as a major boost for the city's artistic and local community 244. It has become an opportunity for communities to come together and local businesses to prosper economically during organised festivals and social activities.
Ease of movement
Healthcare
7.65 In a paper by Penny Cortvriend, Lecturer in Healthcare and Public Sector Management, University of Manchester, she stated that the environment can have a significant impact on staff, through increased stress levels, increased risk of error, and affect recruitment, retention and absence or sickness. Factors influencing recruitment of hospital staff are location, car parking and transport links, family-friendly facilities and ward/patient area workplaces. Cortvriend (2005) also found that open nursing stations result in staff spending more contact time with patients and being able to observe patients easily 245.
7.66 Social spaces introduced into some hospitals in the US, including education rooms, community rooms, and staff interaction rooms, have made staff feel that good design has helped them perform their jobs better 246.
Residential properties
7.67 There has been strong evidence that households in car-dependent neighbourhoods devoted significantly more of their budgets to transportation than households in neighbourhoods with more accessible land-use and multi-modal transportation systems 247. This would mean a reduction in the necessity to own or use a car.
7.68 Crane and Schweitzer (2003) identified in their study that mixed use areas contributed to better employment opportunities for low-income earners, providing employment closer to where people lived, therefore revitalising an entire low-income community 248.
Commercial buildings
7.69 The accessibility to a transportation network was chosen by 84 per cent of respondents as a major factor in locating a business in an area 249. Occupiers at the Waterfront development in Dudley, UK, were significantly less happy about their work environment, as the development had poor connections with the surrounding area - limited amenities and the impossibility of walking to work were seen as distinct disadvantages 250.
7.70 Additional factors which have been cited include having state-of-art workstations and staff amenities 251, including access to sporting facilities, places to get food and eat, and breakout areas. For example, British Airways' new headquarters at Waterside near Heathrow, UK, gave a lot of consideration to the environment and working atmosphere from a social perspective 252 in the initial design of their new offices. The building has been constructed on three floors overlooking their own courtyards with each street providing many amenities and informal spaces including cafés and supermarkets.
Public space
7.71 Pretty (2003) introduced the term 'green exercise' in his study of the importance of nature in the urban environment where many people expressed that green space made them feel relaxed and reduced stress levels 253. This equated to a £500 million a year saving on behalf of the NHS254. This saving has been directly attributed to encouraging people to use green spaces for leisure and exercise, resulting in a healthier population.
7.72 Iconic green spaces such as Royal Parks in London, UK, the Domain in Auckland, New Zealand, or Central Park in New York, US, are clearly valuable in a local sense. But urban design that incorporates significant swathes of green space can have the effect of lowering densities and causing leapfrog developments in new peripheral suburbs 255.
7.73 Klaasen and Jacobs (1999) claimed that the economic value of land due to improved accessibility is influenced by the relative location of various activities, and better connections 256. This has been a view reflected by Landry (2004) who demonstrated that land on the peripheral or city fringe becomes premium location because of the congestion suffered by some city centres especially for distribution-type businesses which places great importance to accessibility 257.
Quality of public realm
7.74 Businesses have a direct stake in the quality of the public environment, in terms of sponsoring civic spaces, making use of public art and enhancing the surrounding area where their businesses exist 258. This literature review highlights the need to provide a safe, attractive and functional public space. It has been estimated that the cost of £1.8 billion has been spent on crime prevention and £120 million for fire services on public housing that has been considered unfit for habitation 259. Development of good quality green spaces, therefore, promote a favourable image of an area and encourage regeneration and new residents to move in 260.
Process
7.75 It has been evident from the literature reviewed, the importance of end user consultation in the design stage of the building or public space. In the design of parks and public places, for example, where vandalism and anti-social behaviour have been common, evidence has suggested that involvement of offenders in the design of the space, helped to curtail negative behaviour in the future. This involvement in the design process helped to instil a sense of ownership and pride in the local community and led to reduced crime rates in the area.
7.76 This involvement in the design process has seen rewards in schools. The involvement of pupils in creating an attractive physical environment and generally encouraging them and their parents to actively participate in school life has a positive impact on school attendance levels and makes vandalism much less likely to occur 261.
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