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Section 6: Social

Vision and character

6.1 The British Urban Regeneration Association ( BURA) reviewed best practice in urban regeneration and concluded that 'historic buildings could act as focal points around which communities would rally and revive their sense of civic pride' and that 'care should be taken not to destroy old buildings before their potential was realised' ²⁵. The restoration of the early nineteenth-century St. John's Church in the London Borough of Hackney, UK, has been a good example of how the restoration of a local building has inspired the regeneration of an area. The church has been developed to incorporate a nursery school, community café, an employment project, a fitness centre, as well as its continued use as a church.

Appearance

Healthcare

6.2 Research in the healthcare sector has highlighted the effects of working and being a patient in new or refurbished hospital buildings. For example, a Sheffield study found that patients treated entirely in the new building had an average reduction of 14 per cent in their length of stay (36.5 days compared with 42.4 days) ²⁶.

6.3 A King's Fund document published in 2002 highlighted the example of Newham Hospital in South East London, UK, where 78 per cent of the staff recorded increased levels of morale (56 per cent) following the redesign of the hospital ²⁷.

6.4 A US study conducted at a Pennsylvania hospital recorded similar results. It found that patients with open views had shorter post-operative stays 7.9 days compared to 8.7 days of patients who looked out onto a brick wall. This also affected the morale of staff in the respective wards, as the nurses working in the open view ward were less negative about their workplace ²⁸.

6.5 Studies by Scher & Senior (1999) highlighted the benefits of displaying visual art in hospitals to staff morale and patient care. 42.6 per cent of front-line clinical staff considered that the arts had a positive effect on the healing process; 23.6 per cent considered that the arts produced therapeutic benefits ²⁹. These findings were also supported by Hutton and Richardson's (1995) ³⁰ studies of the impact of the physical appearance of the health care environment on patient and staff satisfaction.

6.6 Lawson and Phiri ³¹ (2000) studied hospitals in the UK, with the support of NHS Estates and with the collaboration of two NHS Trusts, in an attempt to measure the benefits associated with architectural projects. The research findings highlighted two sets of factors; firstly those that concern the direct relationship between people and their environment, such as colours of surfaces or the temperature of rooms; the second set involving matters of privacy or how spaces enable people to establish community or maintain 'personal space' ³². They discovered that it was the second set of factors, which mattered more to the patients interviewed.

Residential properties

6.7 Cooper (1982) ³³ found a negative correlation between the appearance of a house and a feeling of inferiority. The findings were drawn from an analysis of 100 post-occupancy evaluation studies of resident reactions to multi-family housing design from across the English speaking world. In the study residents valued the attractiveness of their homes and environment. This was determined by a good site layout and attractive landscape, varied and interesting views from the windows of homes, provision of private open space, some degree of aesthetic complexity, some degree of uniqueness of scheme sub-units ³⁴.

6.8 The Popular Housing Forum (1998) conducted a survey of 819 interviews with the general public divided between 'potential new build buyers' and 'others'. They found that new-build homes are generally regarded negatively and were associated with the bottom end of the market, as there was a strong preference for traditional housing with character of the neighbourhood. However, the appearance and safety of the neighbourhood was more important than the house itself ³⁵.

6.9 A recent poll by MORI³⁶ found that 39 per cent of people said that the presence of good scenery and views was an important factor in making the area a pleasant place to live. The level of satisfaction with the home was also found to be related to whether the resident felt safe in their homes. Cozens et al (No date) ³⁷ found that visible signs of decay were seen to increase criminogenic activity and reduced defensibility emphasising the importance of keeping properties and surrounding areas well-maintained. He also found that different types of dwellings were perceived as more prone to crime. Terraced housing was identified as the most defensible form of high density development with high rise flats being the most susceptible.

Commercial buildings

6.10 Researchers have found that natural views increased satisfaction, especially in high-stress work environments. A study of workers in a wine production facility determined that providing sufficient sun exposure could increase worker satisfaction and retention while reducing fatigue ³⁸.

Public places

6.11 The external appearance of a building can form a barrier to those it serves. The library is often seen as a valuable and safe place, providing a valuable service to the local community, yet it has also been perceived by some people as too municipal looking. In Sweden, the library is perceived as being 'the living room in the city' or even 'the town salon' ³⁹ whereby the interior of the library is furnished to replicate the home. The Central Library in Rotterdam offers users greater visual transparency between interior and exterior which is felt to be a symbol of a more open and democratic culture.

Buildability

Healthcare

6.12 Environmental psychology studies offered an insight into the effect of the hospital environment on patients' well-being and happiness. A study by Campbell (1990) focused on the experiences and feelings of five oncology patients in relation to their environment. He found that they all appreciated having a natural view; regardless of whether that was the harbour they could see from one side of the ward or trees on the other. The view made them feel less 'shut in' ⁴⁰.

6.13 Several research projects have looked at the effect of the immediate environment on patients in hospitals. Lawson (2003) found that a new building appeared to have a positive affect on treatment times in the mental health sector (14 per cent reduction) and 76.5 per cent of patients thought their environment had helped their recovery compared to 53.5 per cent in the old wards.

6.14 The benefits to hospital and patient staff of environmental factors such as air quality, heating, lighting and temperature, have been recorded by CABE (2003) ⁴¹:

• 91 per cent of all nurses, and 100 per cent of Directors of Nursing believed that a well-designed environment was significant in improving recovery rates
• 87 per cent of nurses said that working in a well-designed hospital would help them to do their jobs better
• 90 per cent of Directors of Nursing said that patients responded better to staff in well-designed wards
• 90 per cent of nurses felt that a poorly designed hospital contributed towards increased stress levels

Residential

6.15 In a survey conducted by CABE (2002), security against crime emerged as the single most important factor in housing design. This MORI survey found that safety rated three points higher than energy efficiency. Privacy in front of the house can be achieved while allowing overlooking the street for security reasons, for example, the traditional Georgian house with its raised ground floor ⁴². A careful design of the layout of the house is believed to equally meet this desire for privacy and security, with the most public rooms at the front of the house, and the private rooms at the back.

6.16 The three principles of sustainable design - economy of resources, life cycle design, and humane design - provide a broad awareness of the environmental issues associated with architecture. Building and window design that utilised natural light has been found to enhance the psychological well-being and productivity of occupants ⁴³. The use of durable materials means occupants received less exposure to irritating chemicals used in the installation and maintenance of materials ⁴⁴. Fresh air has been seen as being vital to the well-being of occupants. The health benefits of fresh air go beyond the need for oxygen; it has been found that it reduces the exposure time to occupants of bacteria and chemicals used in the home. Daylight has also been found to improve occupants' health as it keeps the body clock working properly.

6.17 Stripped wooden flooring can heighten the noise of normal household activities and may cause unhappiness as sound travels between homes from neighbours ⁴⁵.

Commercial buildings

6.18 In the publication Building Green: A guide to using plants on roofs, walls and pavements, it found that the inclusion of a roof terrace in city centre blocks provided workers with a social space for informal recreation. These areas tended to be less polluted and noisy than street level areas ⁴⁶. The concept of the roof gardens has been a major success in Germany. More radical ideas have been proposed by German architect Rudolf Doernach. Many of his designs including a chapel in Bonn, Germany, suggested that plants should be incorporated within the façade as an active building material with the ability to reproduce itself ⁴⁷.

Context

Healthcare

6.19 Several examples have emerged from the review, which demonstrate the contribution of architectural design on patient and staff satisfaction and stress levels, notably in UK hospitals, Poole hospital and Mill View mental health unit in Brighton. At Poole hospital 72 per cent of the patients in the new unit gave the highest rating they could for overall appearance, compared with only 37 per cent of the patients in the old units ⁴⁸. This has been supported by findings at the new Mill View mental health unit where patients were judged by staff as significantly less aggressive in terms of verbal abuse and physical violence. In addition, the amount of time patients needed to spend in intensive supervisory care was reduced by 70 per cent from 13.1 days to 3.9 days ⁴⁹.

6.20 The ability of architectural design to contribute to the health and well-being of patients and staff has been well documented with the research undertaken by Ulrich (1984) in the US being quoted often. He linked the benefits of having windows with a view with shorter post-operative stays for surgical patients and greater levels of work satisfaction by nurses ⁵⁰. He went further to demonstrate substantial restoration and positive changes in less than five minutes in blood pressure, heart activity, muscle tension and brain electrical activity when viewing nature. This has been a view supported by research conducted by CABE (2003) in the UK where similar results have proven substantial on the impact of landscaped buildings on the health and well-being of patients ⁵¹.

Residential properties

6.21 In the literature review and study commissioned by CABE and DETR, The Value of Urban Design, all the case studies showed that the occupants felt that the developments contributed to some extent towards a new identity for their areas. For example, Exchange Quay in Salford, UK, provided a landmark through height and colour, and Barbirolli Square in Manchester, UK, offered new cultural facilities. However, such impacts were not always viewed positively. Standard Court in Nottingham, UK, was seen as not valuing the historical associations of its site, Waterfront in Dudley, UK, was blamed for ruining Brierley Hill town centre, and the regeneration impact of Exchange Quay was characterised by one occupant as 'soulless out of town estate' ⁵². Other research studies identified that the regeneration of a place pushed prices up and caused the displacement of local resident communities ⁵³. The literature review showed that people's perceptions of a good place to live have centred on the issues of safety and security, low crime rates, and access to good facilities. Where houses overlooked other homes and streets, occupants felt safer and crime statistics have shown that they are safer, with much lower rates of burglary. Also slower car speeds, more walkers and cyclists meant it was safer for children to walk to school or play outside ⁵⁴.

6.22 Darwood (1987) found that location makes homes more vulnerable to crime, such as on a corner, whether it has more than two points of access, and is not overlooked at the front. The relative condition of the house also contributes to the poor image and increases its vulnerability to crime ⁵⁵. Living in a detached house has also been found to increase the risk of burglary ⁵⁶.

Public space

6.23 The decline in a high street economy and the emergence of retail parks and hypermarkets has meant that the number of people walking to amenities has dramatically fallen. For example, those able to reach a food shop within six minutes walk of home fell from 68 per cent to 57 per cent. The distance walked per year per individual has fallen from 410 km/year in 1975/76 to 298 km/year in 1998/2000 ⁵⁷. Declining local economies can be seen as an indirect cost on people's health. A Detroit study (Schulz, 2002) ⁵⁸, showed that poorer neighbourhoods had fewer supermarkets, more liquor stores, and less access to recreational and commercial facilities. These physical conditions work against healthy behaviour, such as regular exercise or eating fresh food. The Urban Green Space Taskforce reported in Green Spaces, Better Places that greater investment in parks has been worthwhile, as it adds value to regeneration and renewal and has cost savings in other areas, such as health, education and environmental management ⁵⁹.

6.24 There has been extensive evidence linking participation in regular exercise with overall lower mortality, and a lower risk of developing coronary heart disease, diabetes and some cancers ⁶⁰.

6.25 Lochner's et al (2003) study highlighted that the built environment can facilitate or hinder social relationships between neighbours. Busy roads and the absence of meeting areas or few local services, for example, have made it difficult to make informal social relationships between neighbours. The study also highlighted a 40 per cent risk of reporting fair or poor health, and higher neighbourhood death rates in a low social capital area ⁶¹.

6.26 Several studies have found that areas with no cul-de-sacs and only through roads are less likely to be subject to crime, as the street outside is constantly being used, and is well lit by street lights ⁶².

6.27 The research also found that public spaces overlooked by residential buildings offered users with a safer recreational space because residents provided surveillance over the area ⁶³. A research project in Kitchener, Canada, compared the before-and-after effects of turning a large under-developed plot of land in a crime-ridden neighbourhood into a community garden. As a result, crime incidents in the surrounding buildings dropped by 30 per cent immediately, and by 49 per cent and 56 per cent in the two subsequent years ⁶⁴.

Operation

Healthcare

6.28 The interpretation of patient-centred design in recent buildings has generally resulted in hotel-like accommodation with more comfortable hospital décor, upholstered furniture, pastel colour schemes and mood lighting. These designs tended to make the hospital less austere as clinical environments by focusing on and increasing comfort and control ⁶⁵.

6.29 Sensory deprivation was associated with high levels of anxiety and depression, high rates of delirium and temporary psychosis in patients on intensive-care units (Ulrich, 1992). This has been linked to aspects of the building, such as the lack of windows on intensive care units ⁶⁶. Patients with a view from a window were discharged earlier than those without (Ulrich, 1984). Mazurch (2001) study claimed that colour, light, temperature and smell enhanced the release of serotonin which dilated the cardio-vascular system and enhanced productivity and healing ⁶⁷.

6.30 There was opposing research on the beneficial affects of adopting multi-bed wards in hospitals. Some patients found that their privacy and confidentiality had been compromised which led to patients withholding information from staff ⁶⁸, whilst other studies ⁶⁹ cited that patients liked the multiple bed space, as they had company and did not feel isolated.

Residential properties

6.31 Research found that occupants were happy with living in high density accommodation if there were good sound insulation between dwellings, and adequate car parking that does not dominate the street scene ⁷⁰.

6.32 Houses with front gardens with good visual oversight from the kitchens and living rooms enabled parents to keep watch on children playing outside and reduced the risk of road traffic accidents ⁷¹.

Commercial buildings

6.33 Users' well-being can be negatively affected by aspects of a building, such as poor air quality, noise level or temperature, which has been linked with asthma, allergies and raising blood pressure. It has also been shown that poor lighting can cause eyestrain, headaches, fatigue and dental cavities ⁷². Referencing published data from studies by BT, National Panasonic and others, a cost of £8.33 per square metre a year was judged to be the minimum cost to an organisation of avoidable absenteeism due to respiratory problems or 'sick building' syndrome ⁷³. The development of the Wells-Riley equation was used which led to the provision of 15-20 litres a second of outdoor air for each occupant to be pumped into the building to reduce the risk of absenteeism from respiratory infection. That amount was deemed to be sufficient to halve the normal infection rate, which would very significantly cut production losses ⁷⁴.

6.34 Companies have found that open-plan office space promoted a sense of community, with improved communication amongst employees ⁷⁵.

Public spaces

6.35 In Developing Accessible Play Space (2002), the research highlighted design aspects which enhance social inclusion of children with and without disabilities. These were the provision of benches and tables close to the play area for parents to offer support from a vantage point but at a distance where it was felt less obtrusive. The provision of a shelter or covered space designed near to the play area increased the amount of time that families spent together ⁷⁶.

6.36 Libraries where the design provided quietness, secure space, refreshment areas, and toilets have been more successful at attracting young people to the library to study. Libraries that have been adaptable and flexible allowing out of hours use have acted as community hubs holding various social and community group activities ⁷⁷.

6.37 Empirical research by Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) revealed a statistically significant link between mixed land use and decreased personal violence, and no correlation with crime, such as homicide, robbery and burglary ⁷⁸. These findings from user groups were consistent with expert observations of a linkage between intensive mixed use and safety in the centres of major US cities (Petersen, 1998) ⁷⁹.

6.38 At the neighbourhood scale, patterns of burglary were strongly linked to the street structure and lighting, and studies showed that areas that are well-connected and visible had a significantly reduced risk of burglary (Shu, 2000) ⁸⁰. This finding reflected the fact that connectivity allowed people and places to benefit more from natural surveillance, as people felt safer, and criminals felt exposed ⁸¹. In addition, access without use increased risk but access with good potential use should always be created (Space Syntax, 2001) ⁸².

6.39 In Safer Place - The Planning System and Crime Prevention, the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister ⁸³, highlighted what makes a safer sustainable environment; informed through a study of case studies:

• Access and movement - places with well-defined routes and signage, spaces and entrances that provide for convenient movement without compromising security. Routes for pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles should run alongside one another, and not be segregated to avoid under-used and isolated areas which are potentially at risk to crime. Where footpaths are used, they should be overlooked by surrounding buildings and activities. Also keeping pedestrians and vehicles at the same level would avoid creating intimidating spaces such as subways and underpasses.
• Structure - places that are structured so that different uses do not cause conflict. Defensible spaces can be provided by private or communal gardens that can only be accessed from the surrounding buildings. Blocks surrounding such spaces also reduced the risk of vandalism and crime. Homes in cul-de-sacs can be highly secure but those joined by a network of footpaths foster criminal activity. Buildings and spaces that are derelict or uncared-for conveyed the impression that crime and anti-social behaviour was tolerated, or more likely to go undetected, than places that are well maintained.
• Surveillance - places where all publicly accessible spaces are overlooked. Windows and doors should face onto the street, and 'active frontages' should be encouraged. Open, bright spaces reduced the number of potential hiding places and the removal of potential loitering areas, such as benches or low walls near cash-points, deterred criminal activities. CCTV has been most effective when combined with good lighting, continuous monitoring and publicity in its usage.
• Ownership - places that that promote a sense of ownership, respect, territorial responsibility and community. Lower barriers, hedges and bushes have been highly useful to signify the public and private divide. The involvement of residents and users, including young people, encouraged a real sense of ownership, and can be achieved through tenant management organisations, community groups and regeneration programmes. 'Pepper-potting' different tenures and housing types ensured a variety of ownership patterns and people are sprinkled, resisting clustered and exclusive enclaves ⁸⁴.
• Physical protection - places that include necessary, well-designed security features including CCTV, entry phone systems and fencing. The adverse of affect of grilles and barbed wire can often make a place look and feel unsafe and unattractive.
• Activity - places where the level of human activity is appropriate to the location and creates a reduced risk of crime and a sense of safety at all times. Different people use the same spaces in different ways and at different times. The public realm should be designed to be enjoyed by different cultural or age groups at the same time by providing complementary activities which prevent segregation or monocultures. The development of an evening economy has been a good way of diversifying uses and extending activity throughout the day and night. Theatres, cinemas, restaurants, bars, galleries and shops have all contributed to ensuring that an area does not become just a drinking culture area. This was also coupled with secure car parking, good public transport facilities and lighting.
• Management and maintenance - places that are designed with management and maintenance in mind, to discourage crime in the present and in the future. As stated previously, disorder and neglect has led to a decline in some areas which resulted in fostering crime. Cleaning and maintenance systems should include regular grass cutting, ground maintenance, and litter and graffiti removal.

Process

Education

6.40 Danko (2003) found that involving students in the design and renovation of a school helped to increase the students' sense of ownership of the space and the enhanced the learning process ⁸⁵.

Residential properties

6.41 Wekerle (2000) found that the participatory process engaged and informed residents, who consequently felt better connected to their community. At the same time, participation legitimises user interests, giving a sense of empowerment and consequent well-being ⁸⁶. However, Francis (2003) found that a poorly run process led to participatory gridlock. This occurred when there was no agreement, or when the outcome of the process contradicted established social and environmental goals; or narrow or vested local interests contradicted the broader public interest ⁸⁷.

Commercial buildings

6.42 Pride by workers in their organisation and of their workplace can be obtained through involvement in the design discussions for the company building. This recognition for their opinions made the employers feel valued and passed ownership of the workspace back to the employees ⁸⁸.

Public spaces

6.43 Research has shown that the user's needs may be different to those anticipated by the architect and the successful projects have been those that have consulted potential users. A community's sense of pride and ownership of the area in which they live will be enhanced if they are involved from the outset. For example, areas made safer through Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design were offered a framework to resolve neighbourhood and community problems and provided opportunities for prevention in new and refurbished developments. This increased the use of public parks and recreation facilities in the area and stronger neighbourhood spirit ⁸⁹. Other research has shown that involving the local community in caring for their park or green space area provides opportunities for personal development, for example, participating in physical activities for exercise, meeting new people and learning new skills, as well as, feeling good by helping their local area ⁹⁰.

6.44 CABE (2004) found that involving young people at risk of offending in the process of designing their own spaces curtailed potential vandalism in public places; there was a new respect for their surroundings and a sense of pride in their place ⁹¹.

Character

Education

6.45 Historic buildings provide an engaging environment for historical education for schools and for individuals learning about their own personal history, as well as broader social history. Research in Heritage Counts 2004, for example, demonstrated how much the 42 Anglican cathedrals in England contributed to the local areas providing countless opportunities for education and volunteering. In 2003, there were 362,000 educational visits to cathedrals, 2,065 million school visits to historic attractions recorded by Visit Britain and 104,475 students in higher education studying for historic environment related degrees ⁹².

6.46 The social benefits reported were the development of new skills, including project management and administration, as well as heritage skills, such as conservation or survey. They also benefited from working in a team, meeting and working with new people and many reported greater confidence ⁹³.

6.47 Back-to-Backs in Birmingham, UK, is a case in point. Located in one of the most deprived wards in Birmingham, the buildings are among the last examples of early nineteenth-century terraced houses located, literally, 'back-to-back' around open courtyards. HLF, National Trust and Birmingham Conservation Trust, restored these houses and the project has become a catalyst for additional investment including an education room, holiday accommodation, offices and a working 1930s sweet shop. The mix of commercial and educational premises has meant that the project is sustainable. Over 100 volunteers have received training to act as tour guides and outreach work has been developed in the local community ⁹⁴.

Healthcare

6.48 Further studies undertaken by Ulrich (1999) have found a reduced need for medicinal drugs and lower blood pressure in patients who had the opportunity of overlooking a garden or being in the presence of plants ⁹⁵.

Residential properties

6.49 The Waterfront in Dudley, UK, is an example of a development where the successful landscaping and integration of the canal, as well as the integration of the leisure facilities along the canalside, provides a pleasant and much appreciated environment. The Standard Court development in Nottingham, UK, has been criticised for a lack of greenery and poor integration of the development with its surroundings making the development seem unpleasant ⁹⁶. Endless rows of standardised buildings and ill-fitting developments contribute to a form of urban entropy, a general deadening of the visual and even spiritual qualities of the places in which we live and work. This has led to a long term winding down of aspirations and quality of life ⁹⁷.

Commercial buildings

6.50 Northern Ireland, like other parts of the British Isles, has suffered urban decline in recent decades but the UK Government has been committed to tackling the problems created, for example, by finding new uses for land and buildings previously occupied by major manufacturing or heavy industry. The Waterfront Hall in Belfast, Northern Ireland, has been instrumental in regeneration of Laganside, making a link between new and old. Art has strengthened links between people and places, for example Deborah Brown's Sheep in the Road which remained recognisable as the TGWU building.

6.51 In the UK, The Tate Modern building in London is one of the best examples of adaptive re-use. The former Bankside Power Station was converted into a unique landmark building in London. The Guggenheim museum in Bilbao, Spain, is also a good example of putting a place on the map through regeneration focused on Heritage and Culture ⁹⁸. However, the Standard Court development in Nottingham, UK, has failed to incorporate the historical significance of its location next to Nottingham Castle. It has been regarded by developers as 'the wrong square in the wrong place' ⁹⁹.

Public spaces

6.52 Public spaces are not just empty voids. Typically, they are filled with both soft and hard landscape elements to help shape their character. What we put into our public spaces is just as important as the space itself. ¹⁰⁰

6.53 Public art in Aachen, Germany, contributed to the city's unique identity as the fountains and sculptures depicted everyday life in Aachen by making historical references. Sponsorship of these artworks allowed other stakeholders, such as local businesses, to feel that they had a direct stake in the quality of the public environment ¹⁰¹. The result is a public space which has generated social benefits, such as, local identity and civic pride.

6.54 A public space network, with focal points coinciding with facilities, has a key role in helping the process of community building creating opportunities for social contact and making the place feel more secure ¹⁰².

Continuity and enclosure

Residential properties

6.55 A study in Brisbane, Australia, measured pedestrian behaviour and human interaction and found that street vitality was higher in non-gated communities, where more than 30 per cent of activity was due to the presence of children. In contrast, children in the gated communities were restricted to playing in their own gardens. The study concluded that providing quality space was not enough but there was a need for high-quality public spaces ¹⁰³. A similar study in Manchester, UK, (Walker, 2000) showed that developments with a courtyard into secure community garden, where only residents had keys, reduced burglaries and fear of crime in one UK Openshaw development, and promoted a neighbourhood watch scheme ¹⁰⁴. The negative impact of gated-communities was the feeling of exclusion from the people excluded.

6.56 In a US study, the research showed that suburban sprawl increasingly isolated the growing minority and immigrant population in North American inner city and older suburbs, in terms of new job and housing opportunities in the outer suburban ring (Yaro, 2001) ¹⁰⁵.

6.57 The physical design of estates also affects residents' behaviour and well-being. The clear physical separation of estates from the surrounding areas make residents feel they lived in a ghetto ¹⁰⁶. Common entrances used by many people make it difficult to keep out strangers or feel secure. US studies confirmed the impact of design on community cohesion and individual well-being. For example, Pruitt-Igoe, near downtown St Louis, Missouri, US, opened in 1954 and consisted of 43 eleven-storey buildings, and housed more than 12,000 people. It was demolished in 1972. Studies showed that the residents were atomised, hostile to one another, experienced high levels of crime and vandalism, and provided each other with no social support. This atomisation was attributed to the design of the buildings, which offered no semi-private space or facilities, around which social relationships could be fostered ¹⁰⁷.

6.58 Another study compared the social interaction between students living in shared rooms on a long hallway to those in suite of three shared rooms. The density of students in each design was the same but the corridor residents showed more withdrawal whilst students in the shared suites formed supportive groups and felt that social interaction was under their control ¹⁰⁸.

Public spaces

6.59 A US study in Baltimore found developments which incorporated semi-private space, such as a common play area on each floor, increased the amount of neighbouring, visiting, and mutual aid among persons moving from slums into the development ¹⁰⁹.

Quality of the public realm

Education

6.60 Taylor (1999) found that the attention in children suffering from attention-deficit disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder while in schools, is restored by incorporating green elements in the physical environment inside the school, and green spaces outside, that can be played in, and viewed from classroom windows ¹¹⁰.

Residential properties

6.61 A US study showed that residents of more compact and interconnected portions of the US city of Atlanta region know their neighbours better and have a better sense of their communities than residents of more dispersed and disconnected environments (Frank et al, 2003) ¹¹¹. Other studies have suggests similar results (Ewing, 1997) ¹¹². The weight of evidence suggests that the reduced encounter rate between people in dispersed settlements diminishes the potential for forming communities of choice (Bentley, 1999) ¹¹³. This is true where lower density is associated with greater car dependence as is often the case. Putnam (2000) of Harvard University, an expert on social capital, has found that each additional 10 minutes of commuting time cuts all forms of civic engagement, such as attending public meetings and volunteering by 10 per cent ¹¹⁴.

Public spaces

6.62 In research conducted by Swanwick (2001), he found that there are social benefits associated with green spaces. These include contact with nature, opportunities for exercise, and involvement in social, cultural and community activities. All of these are beneficial to people's physical and mental health and encourage social interaction and education opportunities ¹¹⁵.

6.63 In a study by Tibbats (2002), the research found that there is clinical evidence to suggest that green spaces reduce stress and prevent obesity in the population. It also claimed they play a vital part in the fabric of the local people and are essential to the physical and emotional development of children. Green spaces are also a congregation point for local festivals, civic celebrations, fairs and other forms of social interaction ¹¹⁶.

6.64 The literature review has found clear evidence of the value of green spaces in promoting community cohesion. For example, a Chicago study (Kuo, 1998) found that people living in apartments tend to use nearby public spaces more if they were 'natural' rather than man-made, leading to greater levels of socialising among neighbours ¹¹⁷.

6.65 Research has shown that the built environment affects people's sense of pride in their surroundings. Carr (1992) referred to empirical studies that supports their claim that certain criteria should apply to the design of public space. They said that places should be meaningful, allowing people to make strong connections between the place, their personal lives and the larger world, accessible to all groups and responsive. This view has been corroborated by Carmona et al (2003) in his study of what made a good public space ¹¹⁸.

6.66 Gehl and Gemzoe (2000) discussed the experience of Copenhagen, Denmark, where because of the psychological comfort derived from the high-quality urban environment and experience, public place activity has increased into winter months previously considered climatically unsuitable ¹¹⁹.

6.67 There is substantial evidence to show the impact of public parks on the health and wellbeing of the population. For example, walking in the park on the advice of doctors reduces the risk of heart attack by 15 per cent (Hakim, 1999); diabetes by 50 per cent (Diabetes Prevention Research Group, 2002); colon cancer by 30 per cent (Slattery, 1997), and fracture of the femur by up to 40 per cent (Grisso, 1991) ¹²⁰. This is supported by research undertaken in Scotland by Bird (2003) who claimed that if one in hundred inactive people took adequate exercise, it could save the NHS in Scotland up to £85m per year ¹²¹. Green space also has the effect of reducing stress, as it is a place of quiet contemplation, a place 'to get away from the stresses of life' (Dunnett, 2002) ¹²² and promotes a drop in blood pressure (Hartig, 2003) ¹²³.

6.68 Melbourne, Australia is a good example of a city that has consciously set and achieved urban design quality and performance targets. The strong community support for these targets reaps dividends in terms of civic pride and widespread commitment to further achievements (Adams, 2005) ¹²⁴. Studies of the Brazilian city of Curitiba showed citizens felt a high sense of civic pride and widespread commitment to further developments as a direct link to the city's commitment to an integrated transport system, preservation of the environment, employment opportunities and social integration (Taniguchi, 2005) ¹²⁵.

6.69 Safety is a major factor to whether people use public spaces. Kjellstrom and Hill (2002) found that activity was discouraged by poor lighting and footpaths, and a perceived lack of safety both from accident and crime ¹²⁶, particularly for women and children. The importance of safety, both perceived and actual, emphasises that these are necessary conditions, if walking is to be encouraged. But when a place is designed to a high quality, an additional 'wide range of optional activities will occur because place and situation now invite people to sit, eat, play and so on' (Gehl, 2001) ¹²⁷.

Diversity

Commercial buildings

6.70 Studies of new developments ¹²⁸ found that commercial retail parks are 'soulless out of town estates' and do not encourage wider community interaction, as developments are deserted at the weekends and evenings, as well as having poor connectivity to the public realm in which they are set. A lack of community activities and facilities hindered the process of building social bridges between groups in the neighbourhood (Forrest & Kearns, 1999) ¹²⁹.

Public spaces

6.71 The Greenwich Open Space Project in South London, UK, evaluated attitudes to nature in local people's lives. Different neighbourhoods were interviewed about what open spaces meant for them. There was clear evidence that the provision of urban wildlife habitats are highly valued and offer the opportunity to experience nature first hand. Even the simple knowledge that a natural area exists is, for many, a source of satisfaction ¹³⁰.

6.72 It has been found (Kaplan, 1985) that large open spaces do not promote positive community feelings as much as smaller natural areas close to housing. This sense of community cohesion can be further promoted by providing a range of uses including private and public activities keeping the area animated throughout the day for the enjoyment of a wide range of users ¹³¹. People also become attached to urban wildlife habitats which can provide a focus for local communities (Shoard, 2003) ¹³². The Countryside Agency (2005) promoted the creation of extensive public green spaces immediately around towns and cities which compliments the provision of usually smaller, locally accessible green spaces within urban areas. Together they created a variety and choice for people in how they wanted to spend their free time and connect with nature and enjoy the outdoors ¹³³.

6.73 The outdoor environment has long been a favourite place to play for children. The majority of time spent outdoors involved children moving around the outdoor environment they have access to and playing en route (Moore, 1986) ¹³⁴. The quality and diversity of the outdoor environment within two streets of the front door is therefore important if children's needs for active, quiet, imaginative, creative and social play are to be satisfied ¹³⁵.

6.74 A paper to the Environmental Design Research Association ( EDRA) by Shehayeb (1995) was based on an extensive literature review of empirical research into human behaviour in public space. People tend to interact more when they could avoid it. It was clear that adaptable public space is used by more people in more diverse ways over a longer time period than spaces designed for specific limited functions. Key attributes include open space along streets that are well defined by enclosed edges of buildings and landscapes, open spaces that are connected but not split by movement paths through the main space, and generous footpaths ¹³⁶.

6.75 US evidence (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2001) shows that accessible local facilities, when combined with a safe and attractive street system with an appropriate degree of connectivity, enhances social equity by reducing the need to own a car to get access to services ¹³⁷. While mixed use may help to create socially diverse communities, it does not necessarily lead to social inclusiveness. Work in the UK by DEMOS (Urban and Economic Development Group, 2000) suggested that there may be little contact between richer and poorer in mixed-tenure developments ¹³⁸.

Ease of movement

6.76 A Scandinavian study showed that children's balance and co-ordination developed faster if they have access to play areas in forest settings rather than in traditional playgrounds, varying topography, vegetation and rocks presented greater challenges (Fjortoft, 2001) ¹³⁹.

6.77 Access to the countryside and the opportunity to use the facilities and amenities within the countryside is made available, regardless of social and economic circumstances, by providing an infrastructure of car-free routes and open spaces to link urban green spaces to the natural green spaces ¹⁴⁰.

6.78 A US study (Appleyard, 1981) found that heavy traffic erodes sense of community. The heavier the traffic, the more limited the social activities of all kinds in that community. The research showed that residents on low traffic streets had a greater sense of neighbourhood compared to those on heavier traffic streets ¹⁴¹, as they rarely extended their home territory beyond their front yards. People on heavily trafficked streets tended to sell their homes more quickly and move on, further undermining any sense of a stable community.

6.79 The majority of traffic accidents occur at junctions and can be reduced through adequate design. Building roads that restrain vehicle speeds and discourage non-access traffic reduce road traffic accidents ¹⁴². This was supported by other research (Maconachie, 2002) which found that a reduction in accidents and car fumes was attributed to a well-designed street layout where 20 mph speed restrictions had been enforced ¹⁴³.

6.80 People would change their long-distance travel and commuting habits if the built environment provided opportunities for mode change, and are more likely to increase the amount of time they spend walking or cycling to local destinations. Cyclists also gain access benefits from appropriate connectivity. Frank et al (2003) cited studies of cycle use in 18 US cities and in Germany. All demonstrated links between the structure and design of the cycle network and cycle mode share. These findings are significant because they show a combination of connectivity and sensitive public space design encourages some people to change their mode of transport, at least for predominantly local trips. The studies highlight a 10 per cent increase in the rate of walking for shopping trips and access to transit stations relative to the rate in car-oriented developments ¹⁴⁴.

6.81 In the same study (Frank et al, 2003) ¹⁴⁵, the research also found that land use mix, especially the availability of retail or commercial uses close to people's homes, led to a three-fold reduction in the likelihood of obesity for certain sectors of the population.

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