« Previous | Contents | Next »
Listen
Section 1: Executive Summary
1.1 The United Kingdom is in the midst of its biggest building boom post World War II. Much of this transformation is in the public sector, spearheaded by the increasing belief of policy makers in the potential difference that good, or bad, architecture and design can make to the lives and aspirations of individuals and communities.
1.2 In Scotland, this is evident in:
- A 30% rise in the total turnover of the construction industry in Scotland, from £8.4m in 1998 to £10.9m by 2003 1
- The largest ever investment in school buildings with 200 schools being built or refurbished by 2006 and a further 100 schools by 2008-09 2
- A total of 27 hospital project proposals in the last five years with a total value of £983m 3
- A total of 119,000 new residential dwellings built between 2000 and 2004, equivalent to 5% of the total occupied households in Scotland 4, with a 9% increase in the number being built between 2003 and 2004 5.
1.3 We know that well-designed buildings and places have the power to inspire us; to make us feel good about who we are, what we do and where we live, and importantly, they motivate us to achieve more - for ourselves and for our communities.
1.4 In Scotland, a belief in this connection between good architecture and design and quality of life is fundamental to government policy. It underpinned the publication of A Policy on Architecture for Scotland (2001a) 6 and the subsequent establishment of Architecture and Design Scotland (A+DS) in April 2005 to be the champion for good architecture, design and planning in the built environment.
"Scottish Ministers want Scotland to be one of the best small countries in the world, valued as an outstanding place to visit, work and live. In turning this aspiration into reality a key task is to maintain and enhance the quality of our natural and built heritage. It is equally important that any development, whether new build or refurbished, contributes positively to the quality of our cities, towns and rural areas. 7"
1.5 In light of the development of the Policy on Architecture for Scotland and to provide better access to information on the impact of architecture and design in many spheres of life, the Scottish Executive commissioned this literature review. The aim was to gather sufficient national and international evidence of the social, economic and environmental impact of architecture and design, both positive and negative, to inform new design with a view to improving quality of life.
1.6 Research was sourced from a total of 158 organisations who supplied 195 documents from throughout the UK, mainland Europe, particularly Scandinavia and as far a field as Canada and New Zealand. The intention was, as far as possible, to gather empirical evidence, not only of the impacts but importantly, of the building and design factors causing these impacts. The review was focused solely on the end-user, those individuals for whose use buildings and places are ultimately designed. Literature was reviewed from within the last ten years, between 1995 and 2005.
1.7 The review adopted a 'best-evidence synthesis' approach (Slavin, 1986) to enable a combination of narrative review of qualitative and case-study evidence with quantitative evidence 8. The aim was to provide enough information to give confidence in the commentary and to enable the reader to reach independent conclusions. While much case-study evidence exists, limited robust quantitative research has been undertaken with end-users. Much of the evidence presented is therefore a synthesis of case-study evidence.
1.8 To ensure the review was undertaken within a systematic and coherent framework, potential economic, social and environmental impact indicators and causal factors associated with the architecture and design of buildings and places were identified in the initial stages of the review. These were drawn from a range of work undertaken in the sector, particularly by CABE. On the basis of this framework a database was set-up to analyse the 165 documents identified as containing empirical evidence. The analysis included the profile and context of the research; type of research evidence and validity of the findings alongside a commentary on the impacts found and their associated causal factors.
1.9 There are many, detailed findings, which are outlined in the Key Findings and analysed in greater detail in both the main body of the report and Appendix.
1.10 Clearly both the causal factors and the range of impacts cross-over. One impact may be caused by several factors coming together. Multiple impacts may arise from a single causal factor. Often, the causal factors are generic such as 'restoration' or 'high quality design'. Wherever possible, when the factors have been identified, we have attempted to be specific about both the causal factors and the impacts.
1.11 In summary, however, the key findings are:
Vision
1.12 Visionary buildings, those with character or a 'wow' factor create jobs; are important in business location decisions; help recruit and retain staff and increase land or property prices in surrounding areas.
Restoration
1.13 Restoration of historic buildings or sites can engage local communities encouraging community interaction, which contributes to community cohesion and revival of civic pride.
Aesthetics
1.14 Buildings with aesthetic appeal and a high-quality of design, which allow for exterior views, fresh air, sunlight, spaciousness, tailor-made design, layout which encourages interaction, use of colour and visual art:
- Increase property and land values; are important in business location decisions; increase rental income and improve the marketability of property.
- Can help staff recruitment; provide inspiration and stimulation; heighten staff morale and satisfaction; improve effectiveness; reduce absenteeism; aid staff retention.
- Enhance pupil and student motivation; reduce absenteeism and improve academic performance.
- Contribute to improved patient recovery rates in hospitals.
- Can provide less harmful environments for people to live, work and learn in by reducing exposure to harmful pollutants.
Context
1.15 The context of buildings, particularly where they have natural views, are near to green spaces, trees and water features:
- increases rental value of commercial and retail property and enhances worker satisfaction and retention, particularly where the context is contiguous to high quality mixed-use public space
- has a positive effect on health and well-being of staff and residents
- increases residential property prices particularly where the green spaces include parks and playgrounds.
1.16 Homes that overlook each other and have good sight from kitchens and living rooms to outdoor areas where children might play, are safer or afford perceptions of increased safety for residents. Housing near busy roads is also felt to be safer from crime but clearly not from road-traffic.
Sustainability
1.17 The use of sustainable design features including energy saving techniques, reduces energy use and costs, both in construction and ongoing operation. This includes intelligent lighting; insulation; low temperature and automatically adjusting heating and glare systems and low emissivity glass.
1.18 Socially, careful use of building materials can have health benefits by reducing exposure to harmful materials. Use of energy-saving techniques can reduce the number of households experiencing fuel poverty. Effective sound insulation can lessen noise problems in high-density accommodation.
Space
1.19 The allocation and use of space has a significant impact on the effectiveness, efficiency, comfort and satisfaction in all sectors. In most cases, a variety of space affording different environments is beneficial.
1.20 In education, cramped classrooms reduce motivation and performance of pupils. Linking of space in schools can reduce staffing costs. Quiet spaces for study increase student motivation and performance. Common areas foster social interaction.
1.21 In hospitals, patients appear to be happier in private recovery rooms; multi-bed rooms can reduce feelings of isolation.
1.22 In work environments, open-plan offices improve communication but can also be distracting. Provision of creative / flexible spaces can encourage creativity and inspiration. Greater space per employee reduces illness.
Comfort
1.23 User comfort in terms of good-quality and natural lighting, air-quality, temperature and acoustics is important in all sectors for productivity, satisfaction, health and well-being.
Easy Navigation
1.24 Effective navigation for people is aided by providing external views from within to help people orientate themselves. In hospitals, disorientation is reduced by creating natural progression from public to treatment rooms supported by clear way-finding.
Character
1.25 Areas deemed to have character are more valued by potential house-buyers. Character, particularly if it involves restoration of historic sites can rejuvenate an area and give it a unique sense of identity. Standardised buildings and those that do not fit into their surroundings are less valued. There is however, evidence that regeneration increases property prices and a negative effect of this can be the displacement of local communities.
Enclosure
1.26 Gated communities are more likely to lack community cohesion; make people outside feel excluded and increase travel times and congestion for those who have to travel round them. Estates can also make people who live on them feel socially excluded due to physical separation from the rest of society.
1.27 Non-gated communities have greater street-vitality and compact, rather lower-density developments encourage greater community cohesion, due to lower car dependence.
Public Space
1.28 Safe, comfortable, accessible public realm attracts residents to an area and encourages greater use, which can lead to greater social cohesion, while lack of public space reduces the opportunity for this. Economically, quality public realm raises property prices and increases retail spend. Key causal factors include pedestrianisation, street-furniture and provision of benches and tables in play areas. Safety measures and perceptions of increased safety also help increase use, particularly effective lighting, CCTV and designing public spaces to have natural surveillance.
Mixed Use
1.29 Diversity - varied environments offering a range of mixed-uses and experiences - appears to create significant impact. Mixed-use development helps regeneration by increasing an area's vibrancy, attracting businesses and residents and creating jobs.
1.30 Socially, mixed-use development affords more opportunities for people to form social relationships and by lessening travel to work time can provide individuals with more personal time. There is also some evidence however that while mixed-use may help create socially diverse communities, these do not necessarily lead to social inclusiveness. Personal safety is felt to be greater in mixed-use public spaces. Health benefits accrue from mixed-use as greater exercise is taken when more people walk to work, retail and leisure facilities and decreased car-use lessens the health impact of car emissions. Economically, mixed-use environments create jobs for local communities; increase workforce productivity by providing nearby leisure and retail opportunities. Environmentally, mixed-use lessens pollution by reducing people's car use for travel to work, leisure and retail facilities whereas greenfield locations increase car emissions.
Green Space
1.31 Green spaces and trees provide significant economic, social and environmental impact. Economically, proximity to green space increases residential property prices while lack of green space reduces them. Accessibility to green space increases the rental income for offices but as offices with significant green space tend to be located out-of-town, there are both health and environmental impacts arising from increased car use.
1.32 Socially, green space, particularly smaller, natural areas of green space close to housing, provides opportunities for social interaction and community activities, which foster community cohesion. Health benefits accrue from access to a natural environment and provision of opportunities to exercise, both of which help reduce stress and enhance individual well-being. Access to green space appears to be particularly beneficial to children, providing areas for social interaction which helps their emotional development and varying topography which can aid physical development more than traditional playgrounds.
1.33 The environmental benefits of green space and trees are extensive. Trees and shrubs help cool the air temperature in heavily trafficked streets; are good interceptors of solar reflection and radiation from buildings and streets; improve air quality by reducing airborne particulate and gaseous pollutants and produce oxygen. They can reduce overall energy use in buildings and C02 emissions. Trees provide carbon-storage capacity and lower the level of water run-off into drains, reducing flood problems.
Ease of Movement
1.34 Ease of movement, afforded by accessible, well-connected spaces has economic impact from being a major factor in business location decisions; helps attract and retain staff and increases the economic value of land where buildings are located near to transportation networks. Socially, low traffic streets afford a greater sense of neighbourhood as people use the streets more and move on less quickly. From a health perspective, well-designed streets that restrain vehicle speeds can reduce traffic accidents while provision of transport alternatives to cars, such as cycle networks and walkways increase exercise. Well-connected and visible areas have reduced crime due to the existence of natural surveillance. Environmentally, good public transport systems, provision of cycle ways and walkways decrease car use and consequent pollution.
1.35 For both buildings and places, consulting and involving users and stakeholders in the design process can help foster a sense of pride, local identity and ownership and increase future use. These factors contribute to community cohesion and reduced crime, particularly vandalism.
1.36 It is clear from the literature review that architecture and design can and do impact on many aspects of life. Architecture can have either a positive or negative social, economic or environmental effect, depending on the quality of the design.
1.37 A more detailed outline of the main impacts of architecture and design is contained in the Key Findings section while analysis of the individual review documents can be accessed in the Appendix.
« Previous | Contents | Next »