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CHAPTER 8: THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Summary
8.1 The term 'built environment' covers a very broad area, which could be the subject of its own review. This chapter examines a number of environmental issues that can be brigaded under the umbrella of the built environment, such as regeneration, planning, rural development, sustainable communities and environmental inequalities ( Chapter 11 deals with environment justice). The chapter aims to identify tensions and synergies between these diverse, but often complementary, areas of policy delivery and describes the key policy responses internationally, at a UK level and within Scotland.
Definitions and concepts
8.2 The built environment is most obviously connected with urban form, land-use and transport, planning, housing and other infrastructure provision, but it also has a significant impact on issues of social justice, energy use and consumption, sustainable communities and lifestyles. The term 'mixed communities' describes communities of mixed tenure, mixed households and mixed housing type and 'creative destruction' is increasingly being used to describe the process of driving out inefficient and outdated practices within areas of policy delivery relating to more sustainable development of the built environment.
Global
8.3 The uneven socio-economic effects of globalisation and the continuing urbanisation of the global population are dominant concerns. New ideas like 'creative destruction' and 'mixed communities' have come about as a response to this. The procurement process, the use of subsidies, minimum standards and information are all being seen as key to adding a sustainable dimension to the way urban environments are being developed and managed.
European
8.4 Greater energy conservation and the need to move away from a reliance on fossil fuel-derived energy sources in both the construction and lifetime use of housing and other buildings feature prominently within the European level literature. Eco-efficiency is being touted as the most appropriate policy response in this respect. The future of the social rented sector has become a topic of debate over the last five years, with the trend in much of Europe for increased home ownership and the growing role of housing associations and corporations. The future of urban policy more generally is also being reassessed.
UK
8.5 The last five years has seen a challenge to neo-liberal, market-based approaches to planning and housing issues, with the importance of sustainable development gaining increasing recognition within the policy literature. There is considerable friction between the new trend for sustainable development in the built environment and the current legislative and regulatory framework. The use of public space is a key debating point at the UK level, particularly given its relationship to crime prevention strategies, community harmony and social justice. Concerns are being expressed about progress towards greater energy efficiency.
Scottish
8.6 There is a very strong focus on improving energy efficiency in the context of the built environment, with particular emphasis on fuel poverty and hence aligning social justice and environmental concerns, which is bringing about positive results. There is a strong commitment to improved quality design, which is seen as essential to successful communities. Reforms to the planning system, which are underway, have adopted a more systematic, spatial approach to nationally significant infrastructure and will lead to greater opportunities for public participation. Planning policy is also focused on reducing resource consumption, notably in the context of travel, and encouraging high quality, sustainable, design.
Global
Priorities
8.7 Globally, the world is becoming increasingly focused around urban living and livelihoods. Although this is nothing new within the developed world (or indeed Latin America and the Caribbean), the proportions of African and Asian populations living in urban settings are predicted to surge from 35% to 50% over the next thirty years ( UNCHS, 2001). The overall picture is bleak for these continents in terms of their sustainable development. There is an increasing divide between rich and poor, largely brought on by globalisation, particularly in Asia, with the poor being responsible for building their own housing, often outside of any legal or regulatory framework. The image of slums and high-rise buildings side-by-side powerfully manifests this divide (Ghosh, 2002). The literature clearly identifies the need for an urban culture of inclusion to counteract the uneven socio-economic effects of globalisation, deepening inequality, polarisation, corruption and inadequate sanitation.
8.8 The process of globalisation is also leading to an increase in disused buildings and derelict land arising largely as a result of changes in manufacturing processes and the relocation of industry to the urban periphery or to new countries entirely. As economies, particularly in developed countries, come to rely more on their service sectors and creative industries, commercial branding of the built environment and the growing importance of urban culture, particularly as a motor of economic growth, have become more prominent ( UN-Habitat, 2005).
8.9 As with many of the other topic areas of this review, practitioners, stakeholders and policy-makers working in the built environment are calling not only for a common definition of sustainable development, but for a shared framework and classification system, particularly when looking to encourage dialogue amongst stakeholders (Brandon and Lombardi, 2005). The need for inter- and intra-industry collaboration, and among policy-makers, is also a common theme.
8.10 'Creative Destruction', the use of innovative practices and materials to drive out inefficient practices, is a growing concept (Hartshorn et al, 2005), and is seen as one way of approaching the challenge of reducing reliance within buildings on fossil fuel-derived, high-grade energy (Thomas and Fordham, 2003). There is considerable technical potential for improving efficiency, with cost-effective technical advances responding effectively to the market mechanism. Technology procurement, aggregated purchase, targeted rebates and subsidies, improved information to consumers, retailers and other stakeholders, energy labels, negotiated agreements and mandatory minimum standards are all key to this process (Fawcett et al, 2000).
8.11 The need to develop sustainable building technology and policies that are specific to an area's climate, economic conditions and residential customs, rather than adopting a blanket approach based on policies from the developed world is prominent in the international literature. China is a good example of the need for this approach (Zhu YX and Lin BR, 2004). In the US, the concept of mixed communities and the potential for creating sustainable neighbourhoods are influencing US planning policy (Berube, 2005).
Policy responses
8.12 Chapter 7 of Agenda 21, 'Promoting Sustainable Human Settlement Development' has been the main policy framework for sustainable development at an international level since the 1992 Rio Summit. This has since been updated and complemented by several additional policy developments. The UNDeclaration on Cities and Other Human Settlements in the New Millennium, resolution S25.2 of 9 June 2001, for example, reaffirms that the Istanbul Declaration and the Habitat Agenda remain the basic framework for sustainable human settlement development into this century ( UN General Assembly, 2001).
8.13 The UN Habitat Agenda and Istanbul Declaration were a call to action, outlining two priorities in 1996, the need for sustainable human settlements and adequate shelter for all, and were signed by 171 UN member-states (United Nations Human Settlement Programme, 1996). The Agenda also highlighted the need for policy to be holistic, participatory and inclusive ( UNCHS, 1996).
8.14 The Istanbul + 5 Review and appraisal in 2001, recognised that globalisation has forced cities to compete to attract capital and that this competition has left the poor behind ( UNCHS, 2001). From the national reports that were submitted as part of the review process, urban violence, civil conflict, basic services and housing rights were the main issues faced by cities today, with action being most effective at the local level.
8.15 The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and Millenium Development Goal 7 both aim for significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020 ( UN Resolution 55/2, 2000; MDG 2004), along with improved access to land and property, increased utilisation of low-cost and sustainable materials and appropriate technologies for the construction of adequate and secure housing ( JPOI, 11 a and b, 2002).
8.16 The outcome of the Commission on Sustainable Development's 13th Session
of 2005 is also significant. The Commission stated that policy options and practical measures should be nationally owned and integrated into existing national strategies, giving due consideration to urbanization trends and the needs of the urban poor in implementing the Millennium Declaration, preventing new slum formation. The need for increased participation of all stakeholders, in particular women, was also highlighted. Public-private partnerships for financing and developing infrastructure and affordable housing were encouraged, as was the use of local materials (Commission on Sustainable Development, 2005).
Possible lessons
8.17 In Colorado, the company CH2M HILL, a global project-delivery firm with a staff of 12,000 around the world, has sustainable development as a core business principle, guiding its commercial, institutional, industrial or public works projects from concept right through to maintenance (World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2005). Its integrated services include water, transportation, energy and environment, telecommunications, design-build and facility operations.
8.18 Based in suburban Perth, Australia, the Pinakarri housing cooperative exemplifies how to live in an environmentally sound and socially supportive way (Pinakarri Homepage, 2005 and Government of Western Australia, 2005). A group of mostly single parents (seventeen adults with fourteen children) on low incomes wanted to secure self-managed, rented housing in a safe and supportive environment for its members and visitors. They also wanted the co-operative to serve as a model for those seeking a more sustainable life-style within a suburban context and was designed to facilitate opportunities for social interaction while respecting the need for privacy. Decision-making is participatory and non-hierarchical and the community is not a primary source of income for any member
8.19 The Ellenbrook Solar Housing Venture was set up to allow homeowners to control their living conditions more sustainably (Government of Western Australia, 2005a). Part of Ellenbrook has been developed as an environmentally friendly village. The buildings have adopted contemporary Australian architecture, incorporating lightweight construction materials, iron roofs, bright colours from the landscape and mixed materials in the house façades; native vegetation has been retained in open public spaces and in front yard landscaping; water efficiency is emphasised; all homes are connected to the town's fibre optic cable system; there are local employment programs; and there is a homeowners' solar design package
European
Priorities
8.20 As European countries continue to urbanise, concern is growing about the potential strains on an infrastructure that was built with a lack of long-term planning (Timmeren, Kristinsson and Roling, 2004). An emerging focus on Sustainable Urban Development ( SUD) concentrates attention on cities ( CEC, 2000).
8.21 In common with the international perspective, the need for greater conservation of energy in housing is a strong theme in the Europe-level literature (Morawska, 2001), alongside a focus on potential for decreasing reliance on fossil fuel-derived energy sources in construction and lifetime of housing (Fawcett et al, 2000). In France, where housing and urban policies have progressively incorporated social aspects, and in Germany, where environmental concerns have been integrated into policy, local priority objectives are beginning to take precedence in the push for more sustainable urban environments. However, a lack of shared knowledge of sustainable development and the ambiguous status of citizen participation in relation to representative democracy are seen as slowing down this development potential (Laigle and Oehler, 2004).
8.22 Europe is witnessing a transition in its social housing provision from local authority ownership and management to private ownership, private sector provision and devolved management. It is highly debateable whether this represents a positive direction in terms of the sustainable development of the built environment. What is evident from the literature, however, is that this 'sea change' is reflected in the dominant theoretical discourse at the European level. However, creating shifts in the policy discourse of member states and institutionalising new ideas on the ground have not been as easy, as Sweden has demonstrated (Lundqvist, 2004).
8.23 In the Netherlands strategic planning policies on sustainability and state guarantees for social housing have been highly successful in levering private finance. The exposure of capital institutions to housing investment is the highest in Europe at 44%, compared to 1% in the UK ( CEM, 2005). There is an argument that housing corporations, being private, independent social entrepreneurs, can 'ride the storm', though this remains to be seen, particularly given a move away from social housing provision by the Dutch government, which has traditionally been a champion of the socially rented housing sector (Priemus, 2001).
Policy responses
8.24 There are moves in the European Union towards the promotion of eco-efficiency ( EEA, 2000). In the 6th Environmental Action Programme , adopted by the Council and the European Parliament in 2002, a 'Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment' was defined as a priority action. However, there are so far few specific initiatives or strategies beyond improving the quality of the urban environment and reducing the impact that cities have on the wider environment, at present.
8.25 In 2004, the European Commission adopted Communication COM(2004)60 Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment, setting out its ideas for such a strategy (due in 2005, at the time of writing), based on four areas: urban environmental management, urban transport, sustainable construction and urban design. Stakeholder consultation is underway ( EU, 2005).
8.26 In 2000, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ( UNECE, 2000) Strategy for a Sustainable Quality in Life in Human Settlements in the 21st Century was adopted by Ministers of the member-states. This identified major trends and developments affecting human settlements, such as globalisation, demographic changes, urbanisation and sustainable development, at the beginning of the new century, and constitutes guidelines to the Commission's work programme, highlighting the need for a broader policy context of economic and social development and emphasizing participation and the strengthening of the capabilities of local authorities and non-governmental organizations, alongside the constructive participation of the private sector. Urban and rural development must be seen as important to economy. The main goals of the UNECE Strategy are to promote a system of meaningful and democratic governance that responds to the needs of local communities; to improve urban environmental performance; promote market reform in the housing and urban sector; and improve land and real estate markets, securing private rights in land.
8.27 The Working Party on Land Administration was established in 1999 by the UNECE. It aims to promote a model of land administration through security of tenure, the establishment of real estate markets in countries in transition and the modernization of land registration systems in the market economies ( UNECE, 2005).
8.28 The Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive ensures that environmental consequences of plans and programmes are identified and assessed during their preparation, rather than before their adoption (Europa, 2001).
Possible lessons
8.29 The European Commission and the BEQUEST network (Building Environmental Quality Evaluation for Sustainability through Time), provides the BEQUEST toolkit, and aims to build consensus among stakeholders (Deakin and Curwell, 2003).
8.30 The Blackrock Initiative: after extensive local community consultation, this initiative aimed to improve the physical fabric of old urban areas in Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown, Dublin, based on the design for disability concept and ensuring integrated access for all ( WHOa, 2005). Every aspect of planning was used to eliminate obstacles to mobility and accessibility posed by the built environment. The County Council developed the project in partnership with an organisation representing people with disabilities, local commercial bodies and statutory organisations, including Irish Rail, Dublin Bus and Dublin Healthy Cities Project.
UK
Priorities
8.31 The sustainability potential of urban living is currently being assessed within the UK-based theoretical literature, with the critical importance of public space to the processes of social learning, public participation, social inclusion and social integration, as a foundation (Magnoli et al, 2002). The Urban Task Force has promoted compact urban forms that support economic prosperity, are environmentally responsible and promote social integration. The Government, conversely, is unlikely to meet its own target that 60% of new dwellings should be built on previously developed land (Urban Task Force, 1999). Problems have also been noted with the Government's over-reliance on Private Finance Initiative schemes ( PFI) in the delivery of sustainable development (Hill and Collins, 2004).
8.32 Derived from an American concept, 'mixed communities' is increasingly influential within debates surrounding the sustainability of the built environment, particularly in the policy literature (Bennet, 2005). Encouraging diverse tenures, types of households and varying types of housing is widely acceptable as sustainable practice (Long, 2000), contributing to regeneration that lasts (Evans and Fordham, 2000). This is not without its critics (Cole and Shayer, 1998). Knowles (2005) suggests a conflict between 'New Urbanism', as promoted by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister ( ODPM) and the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment ( CABE), and the crime reduction ideas set out in the 'Secured by Design' national scheme of the Association of Chief Police Officers.
8.33 Seemingly in contrast to the prevalent housing discourse identified within the European literature, the UK policy documentation suggests a general need to look beyond autonomous housing to create sustainable communities (Edwards and Turrent, 2000). It has been argued within the literature, however, that the emphasis on tackling a shortage of housing and on reviving the economy in particular areas actually represents a hybrid of neo-liberal and sustainable development concerns (Raco, 2005). For example, the UK Government's Sustainable Communities: Building for the Future ( ODPM, 2003)demonstrates a distinct move away from the neo-liberal hegemony that has been prevalent in both past policies for the built environment and other areas of sustainable development policy delivery to date.
8.34 Daly et al (2003) argue that achieving sustainable urban regeneration on the scale sought by the government depends heavily on bringing in large-scale private investment into private rented housing and mixed-use schemes. Land use and affordable housing requirements are insufficiently defined within planning legislation, leading to failures in implementation. The 'trial and error' approach to agreeing the content of schemes with local authorities is also causing considerable problems (Daly, Pottinger and Dixon, 2003).
8.35 The need to reduce CO2 emissions and energy consumption within the built environment is central to the literature base (Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, 2004). It is generally recognised that upgrading the energy efficiency of housing stock has wider implications for sustainable development aims and objectives, producing environmental, social and wider macro-economic benefits, as well as producing lower fuel bills to the householder (Goodacre, Sharples and Smith, 2002). Again, there are problems with defining sustainability, with practitioners wasting precious time firstly finding a definition, and then persuading other practitioners of its robustness. This suggests the need for a consensus definition (Long, 2000) and some commentators have argued that the entire concept needs to be reassessed (Keiner, 2004).
8.36 This new demand for sustainable construction does not fit neatly into the current legislative framework for construction professionals in England and Wales (the Building Act, the Town and Country Planning Act, the Planning Policy Statements, the Contaminated Land Regime and the Environmental Protection Act), particularly as it looks to encompass broader economic, environmental and social concerns than the legislation allows. Sustainable housing may be covered by a complicated arrangement of policy aims and guidelines. There is, however, little legislation requiring housing providers to take sustainability into account, short of funding criteria from the Housing Corporation and English Partnerships (Pett, 2004).
8.37 Much of the more contemporary literature promotes a need to place social justice at the heart of planning, housing and energy supply policy, with a devolved, grass-roots, bottom-up approach to the planning process ( TCPA, 2005). This requires constructive participation, particularly from Housing Associations (Housing Corporation, 2005), and tenants (Ekins, 2000). Other calls are for a focus on rural poverty and housing issues ( LGA, 2003) and poverty and social exclusion (Mullins, McCluskey and Taylor-Browne, 2000). Another issue is sustainable urban development and crime prevention through environmental design (Cozens, 2002).
Policy responses
8.38 Creating 'Sustainable Communities' is very much the guiding light in the policy community at the moment. The Urban White Paper emphasised the need to create environmentally sustainable built environments, enabling communities to create and share wealth ( ODPM, 2000). The fact that A New Commitment to Neighbourhood Renewal: National Strategy Action Plan was published by the Social Exclusion Unit (2001; now part of the ODPM) is a statement of intent from the Government, embodying its vision for narrowing the gap between deprived communities and the rest of the country. Central to the delivery of this action plan are Local Strategic Partnerships ( LSP), non-statutory, multi-agency bodies that operate at the local level and aim to bring together different parts of the public, private, community and voluntary sectors. LSPs have been set up across England in recognition of a lack of joint-working at the local level and could provide a forum for early engagement with local communities in the planning process. The Government has commissioned a five year evaluation of LSPs.
8.39 The Neighbourhood Renewal Unit's three community participation programmes (Community Chests, Community Learning Chests and Community Empowerment Fund) have been merged into the Single Community Programme, with four distinct objectives, to support:
- Community Empowerment Networks so that they engage fully in the Local Strategic Partnership;
- community learning through small grants and the development of learning strategies;
- the development of active and resourceful communities by providing small grants;
- community involvement in neighbourhood-level partnerships so that residents can play a central role in driving neighbourhood renewal ( NRU, 2005).
8.40 ODPM's Sustainable Communities: Homes for All (2005) aims to help 80, 000 first time buyers and key workers to own their own home, and is complemented by the Homebuy Scheme, which could enable up to 300, 000 social tenants to buy a share in their home. Both Registered Social Landlords ( RSL) and Local Authority tenants will be able to purchase a home on the open market with the aid of an equity loan from an RSL equal to 25% of the purchase price. The applicant funds the remaining 75% of the purchase through conventional mortgage and savings ( ODPM, 2005a). The Government's Move UK system brings together information about jobs and homes; extends choice-based lettings nationwide; and includes action to halve numbers living in temporary accommodation by 2010.
8.41 The Code for Sustainable Buildings is a voluntary initiative, by Government and industry, to encourage the building industry towards more sustainable practice ( ODPM, 2005b). National planning guidance has also been updated to reflect the Contaminated Land Regime. The amendment of Part L of the Building Regulations is a welcome example of how government can raise standards of both new and existing buildings.
Possible lessons
8.42 Some affordable housing, good practice initiatives include:
- Britannia Mills, Manchester: Urban Splash Architects, 2000.
- Greenwich Millennium Village, London: Proctor Matthews Architects, 2002.
- Poundbury Dorchester: Architects: Leon Krier, 2002.
- Chorlton Park, Manchester: Stephenson Bell Architects, 2002.
8.43 The Gallions Ecopark housing project also seeks to concentrate on the details of sustainable construction and design and the scheme provides a model that can be adapted or replicated in future housing developments. Details on the design and delivery team, a green assessment example from the Netherlands and procurement and cost assessments can all be found in the Housing Corporation Public Library via the web (Housing Corporation, 2005).
8.44 Good examples of public space projects include:
- Piccadilly Gardens Manchester: Arup Planners and Landscape Architects and EDAW Architect Tadao Ando, 2002.
- Blue Carpet, Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Thomas Heatherwick designers, 2002.
- Ecology and Art Pavilions and Children's Play Centre, Mile End Park, London: Tibbalds TM2, 2002.
Scottish
Priorities
8.45 Addressing inequalities in communities that tend to be more concentrated in particular types of urban and rural contexts than in the rest of the UK and a need to know what works particularly in terms of assisting disadvantaged communities are priorities for Scottish policy on the built environment (Scottish Executive, 2002b). The transfer of council housing stock to community ownership is seen as key to regenerating that stock.
8.46 Energy efficiency is central to achieving sustainable development within the built environment (Secretary of State for Scotland's Advisory Group on Sustainable Development, 1999). Tackling fuel poverty, the implementation of "in principle" commitments to introduce housing energy ratings in vendors' surveys (should they be adopted), and the need to implement commitment to raise thermal requirements of Building Standards all relate to this
8.47 The role of the planning system in delivering sustainable development is crucial. It is seen as enabling energy efficiency to be addressed through design and layout, as well as ensuring a reduction in the need for travel or in enhancing access to transport with consequential benefits. Improving the quality of design is acknowledged as a factor in the success of communities (Scottish Executive Development Department, 2001). Better engagement with communities at an early stage in development planning and control has, therefore, been recognised as a key participation mechanism (Scottish Executive, 2002b). Government has underlined the importance of the planning system in ensuring that development is directed to brown-field sites (Scottish Executive, 2000). Taking a wider perspective, Birley (2001) has stressed the need for a systematic approach to strategic infrastructure provision through a national spatial perspective to replace competitive bidding for infrastructure resources.
8.48 Furthermore, Poustie (2004) has highlighted the centrality of the planning system in furthering the substantive or distributive elements of environmental justice. However, although recent planning consultation papers make passing reference to environmental justice, the Executive has not elaborated how the planning system can contribute to environmental justice except in relation to the procedural dimension of involving people more fully in decision-making. Poustie suggests that Strategic Environmental Assessment, in relation to plans and programmes, and Environmental Impact Assessment, in relation to particular development applications, may be suitable mechanisms, which could begin to address environmental justice issues.
Policy responses
8.49 The Executive has produced a regeneration statement, Better Communities in Scotland - Closing the Gap, which aims to tackle the inequalities between communities by narrowing the gap between the disadvantaged and everyone else (Scottish Executive, 2002b). It acknowledges a need for a more strategic approach to the delivery of core public services to maximise their effect in disadvantaged areas and seeks to ensure that such communities have the necessary social capital to take advantage of opportunities open to them.
8.50 This represents a more focused approach which relies on community planning (implemented through the Local Government in Scotland Act 2003) and seeks to establish more clearly what works (through measures such as Neighbourhood Statistics). Community planning is the way in which local authorities and other national and local organisations agree local priorities with the community and then work together to provide services that are needed at that level. The direct funding of local activities to support social justice through the Social Inclusion Partnerships, Local Rural Partnerships, Glasgow City Alliance and Capital City Partnership has been stressed, as has the need to know more about what works in terms of partnerships.
8.51 The transfer of Glasgow's housing stock to community ownership is complete. The 'Glasgow Standard' which been developed with a very strong commitment to sustainability in terms of minimising consumption of resources, maximising theuse of recycled materials, creating energy efficient, long-life, low-maintenance homes, with affordable modern central heating, and in terms of good design.
8.52 The Partnership Agreement committed the Executive to extend the home insulation and central heating programme to improve another 4,000 homes by 2006, with priority initially being given to the over 80s who only have partial or poorly functioning heating systems. By May 2005, 2255 systems had been upgraded for the over 80s. A commitment was made in Building a Better Scotland that, by the end of 2006, all private sector housing occupied by elderly people and all housing association or local authority housing would have central heating (Scottish Executive, 2002). It has been reported that all social sector housing where the householder wishes it now has central heating with the exception of Glasgow Housing Association where the work will be completed in March 2007 (Scottish Executive Development Department, 2005). Furthermore, the programme for pensioner central heating in the private sector will run until the end of March 2006. Overall, there is evidence that fuel poverty is being reduced significantly. The Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 requires a ministerial statement on fuel poverty. A statement made in August 2002 indicated a significant reduction of households in fuel poverty between 1996 and 2002 from 738,000 to either 369,000 or 262,000. Interventions have included the Executive's Central Heating Programme and the Warm Deal initiative and work with energy companies and local authorities through the Energy Efficiency Commitment and Community Energy Partnerships. The thermal requirements of new buildings were enhanced in 2002 (Scottish Executive Development Department, 2002) and now the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004 have also been improved.
8.53 Building a Sustainable Scotland notes that Communities Scotland has embedded sustainability in its Development Programme and that sustainability indicators have been adopted which measure performance relative to carbon dioxide emissions, the use of brown-field sites, average energy cost per household and the adoption of sustainable development policies by Registered Social Landlords (Scottish Executive, 2002). In 2001-2, 96% of new homes funded by Communities Scotland had Standard Assessment Procedure ( SAP) ratings greater than 85.
8.54 Strong planning guidance on sustainable development is contained, for example, in National Planning Policy Guideline 8, Retailing and National Planning Policy Guideline 17, Planning and Transport (now replaced by Scottish Planning Policy 17, Planning for Transport) particularly focused on reducing need for travel or making developments accessible by public transport or walking or cycling. It is perhaps less obvious that such policies are being put into practice effectively, given the delays encountered in the delivery of many - particularly rail - public transport projects (including the Edinburgh Park station, Gartcosh Station, and the Stirling-Alloa railway line).
8.55 Strong planning guidance on the redevelopment of brownfield including contaminated land (Scottish Executive, 2000) has led to a considerable decline in the amount of vacant and derelict land in Scotland between 1994 and 2003 (Scottish Executive Development Department, 2004). The role of the planning system has remained paramount in securing brown-field redevelopment with the contaminated land regime in Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 playing a background role (Hossack et al, 2004).
8.56 There have been significant developments within the planning system and further reforms are planned. For instance, Birley's (2001) concerns regarding the lack of a national systematic, spatial, approach to strategic infrastructure provision are being addressed with the adoption of the National Planning Framework for Scotland. This document, which will be a material consideration in the framing of planning policies and the making of decisions on applications, seeks to guide the spatial development of Scotland to 2025, highlighting the importance of place and identifying priorities for investment in strategic infrastructure. It is also designed to reflect the European Spatial Development Perspective (1999).
8.57 The Executive has also promoted design issues as it sees design as a means of creating places of lasting quality as well as helping to address energy efficiency issues in an appropriate context.
8.58 Proposed reforms to the planning system include a raft of measures to enhance public participation, although a Third Party Right of appeal has been rejected (Scottish Executive, 2004b). In particular, the Executive has recognised the importance of early planning and more effective and meaningful public participation, both in terms of the preparation of development plans and in dealing with planning applications. This is seen as being the way to ensure more community confidence in the system as well as helping to ensuring better quality planning policies and decisions, including those relating to design.
Possible lessons
8.59 The transfer of its entire housing stock from ownership by Glasgow City Council in 1997 (when it was the largest social landlord in Europe) to ownership by the Glasgow Housing Association has made possible £1.3bn capital investment over the first ten years of the transfer. Experiences and perceptions of the transfer have been varied.
8.60 Based in Glasgow, ' SUST: The Lighthouse on Sustainability' is a campaign intended to raise awareness of the significance of sustainable approaches to design in the built environment. Funded by a grant from the Executive's Sustainable Action Fund, it provides increased access to guidance, tools and techniques for design teams, clients, and community groups. It works in partnership with key organisations in the sustainability field and has developed unique training, guidance and information to support informed decision-making about sustainable development.
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