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Annex One - Literature Review

A1.1 This document consists of three summary reports resulting from a literature review that was carried out as part of the project "Assessing Improved Transport for Disabled People" (in Scotland), commissioned by the Scottish Executive. The Client's objective in commissioning the research is to support the its commitment to assessing public transport options for disabled people, exploring a wide range of potential improvements in relation to accessibility, availability, infrastructure, information and the improved targeting of funding. Whilst the entire project includes a quantitative household survey of some 700 individuals, qualitative focus groups, case studies of examples of good practice and secondary analysis of Scottish Household Survey data, the literature review has considered existing evidence for which measures and actions might best meet the needs of disabled people.

A1.2 The following summary reports relate to the three research questions which were posed at the beginning of a the project, and which have directed the focus of the literature review,

• Which measures are needed to meet the public transport needs of disabled people in Scotland?
• Which actions will help to improve the accessibility, availability and infrastructure of public transport in Scotland?
• Which measures are needed to reach parity of mobility to all?

The measures needed to meet the public transport needs of disabled people

Summary

A1.3 An analysis of which measures can make public transport more accessible for disabled people in Scotland begins with a definition of those needs. These have been assessed on the basis of research studies, good practice guidelines and communication with transport providers in the field. Whilst it is acknowledged that it is difficult to assess the true nature of disabled people's demand for greater mobility, since they do not have perfect knowledge of the facilities and transport resources that would be available to them in a hypothetical barrier-free environment, a number of appropriate transport measures based on studies of user needs have been described in the following report. The most important points may be summarised as follows:

• The provision of accurate and timely information on accessibility levels is of paramount importance to many disabled travellers, and this should be provided in accessible formats.
• The accessibility of the public transport network depends to a large extent on the ease with which people can reach the nearest point of this network (a bus stop, for example) from their home - a well-maintained and barrier-free pedestrian environment is therefore important for wheelchair users, people who are blind or partially-sighted and people who have difficulty with walking.
• Many disabled people would agree that the most effective and reassuring measure is the provision of staff on vehicles and at stations and interchanges - preferably staff who have been properly trained in how best to assist disabled people with differing needs.

A1.4 According to the recent Scottish Household Survey ( SHS), a quarter of respondents (26.6%) reported having "any long-standing illness, health problem or disability that limits your daily activities or the kind of work that you can do", with 7.6% of the sample reporting difficulty using a bus, 10.9% difficulty standing for 10 minutes and 11.9% difficulty walking for 10 minutes. Factor analysis found "difficulty using a bus" to be correlated with two separate groups of items: one factor grouped difficulty with bus use with difficulties with standing, walking and climbing stairs, and a second factor grouped together four transport modes - taxi, car, train, bus - suggesting they present a common difficulty to some people. Research was also conducted into factors influencing whether respondents had used the bus in the last month. Whether the respondent's household did or did not have access to a car emerged as the most powerful predictor of bus use in the previous month. Amongst those with no car access, difficulty with using a bus made the most difference (reducing usage from 67% to 20%).

A1.5 A methodological problem shared by all studies which address the question of the mobility needs of disabled people is that of defining latent demand. This consists of estimating the extent to which disabled people would travel, and the modes of transport they would use and the purpose of their journeys, if the travelling environment were to allow them to travel with the same freedom that is enjoyed by non-disabled people. Studies of revealed demand for mobility (i.e. analysis of data on trips already being made by disabled people) and projections of mobility levels based on the functional capabilities of disabled people, are not satisfactory alternatives to addressing latent, or suppressed, demand.

A1.6 An early report by Oxley ¹ considered three ways of assessing potential, or latent, demand. One was based on direct questions on journeys people would like to make, but couldn't, the second was based on subjects' estimate of how much use they would make of special (accessible) services once knew of them and/or those services were improved, and the third was based on an analysis of the extent to which people were not going out for any purpose because of transport-related reasons. (N.B. This survey was carried out before any real mainstream services were accessible; the only services available at the time were specialised, dedicated services, such as Dial-a-Ride). The survey areas were in Glasgow, Doncaster and Haringey. The survey sample was 789 people, and the approximate results of the three approaches mentioned above were: 1) 500 to 600 single trips per week, 2) 1000 single trips per week, and 3) 2200 single trips per week. The conclusion from this study was that 1000 to 1500 trips per week, or about 15% to 20% of current total trips, would be a reasonable estimate of latent demand.

A1.7 It might be argued that there is limited value in simply asking people how much they would travel if their environment were barrier-free, since such a hypothetical question assumes that respondents are aware of the alternatives that are available to them; it is more likely that a person to whom public transport is, or is perceived to be, inaccessible will have a very limited knowledge of transport options, and will in any case have limited knowledge of the availability of goods, services and activities beyond his or her immediate geographical area. The effect of the environment restricting mobility will itself confine an individual to a smaller set of activities and social contacts, and the reduced participation in employment and further education of disabled people further restricts mobility levels. It is a major challenge to estimate the way, and the extent to which, an individual would travel if their horizons were broader and if they were, for example, in employment.

A1.8 Meadows ² suggests that there are three categories of inhibiters to movement for disabled people; these are "Personal" (pertaining to the individual's health, functional capabilities and expectations for mobility), "Environmental" (weather conditions, physical accessibility of the environment) and "Trip-related" (length of the trip, the cost of travel, the reliability and availability of transport services provided). It might be argued that knowledge and awareness of the transport facilities that are available are also important in determining mobility levels, so that pre-trip information in particular becomes an important facilitator to travel. Research has certainly shown that, for disabled people, it is particularly important to have accurate and reliable information on all aspects of a journey, from start to finish, before they embark on a journey. Just as it is important for there to be an unbroken "chain of accessibility" for a journey to be feasible, disabled travellers place greater importance than non-disabled people on the need for information to be available on each leg of a journey.

Information Provision

A1.9 The availability of information before and during a journey can have a profound effect on the passenger's experience of that journey and can even be a determining factor of a disabled person's decision to travel or not. This is regardless of the accessibility of vehicles and infrastructure, and is demonstrated by several UK research studies. Most recent was the investigation of disabled people's information requirements, commissioned by the Department for Transport in 2003 ³. This was in line with the Government's current emphasis on reducing the social exclusion of certain groups of people, including disabled people. This agenda recognises that potential disabled travellers should have access to information about accessible public transport services, and that this information should itself be available in an accessible format. The research carried out involved a series of 13 Focus Group discussions in four locations in Great Britain (including Glasgow), and represented three broad groups of disabled people: blind and partially sighted people, people who are deaf or hard of hearing, and people with physical mobility impairments. There was also a single focus group involving people with learning disabilities.

A1.10 A general finding from this research was that there was generally an inverse relationship between people's propensity to be able to travel confidently and independently, and the importance they place on the requirement for pre-trip information. For example, participants in the research who were deaf or hard of hearing, who were among those most able to travel independently, put a relatively low level of importance on pre-trip information, and were more concerned about travel information during their trip. Conversely, the people with learning disabilities and wheelchair users, who were least able to travel independently, regarded accurate and reliable pre-trip information as being crucial before feeling confident to begin a journey.

A.1.11 The type of public transport information required varied considerably according to people's mobility characteristics (Table A1.1 summarises the information requirements and preferences of disabled people consulted in the Department for Transport's research, and the potential impact on their travel behaviour). Deaf and hard of hearing people were found to need no more than basic timetable information, whilst less independent travellers needed as much information as possible about the accessibility of both vehicles and interchange facilities. Generally, information that was described as being "essential" included times of services, route numbers of buses and alternative services in the event of delays and cancellations. An aspiration of many disabled people was the availability of real-time information on changes to services by means of a text message to a mobile 'phone.

The Pedestrian and Street Environment

A1.12 An important element of the accessibility of public transport is the ease with which people can physically access the network; typically, this refers to how easy it is for people to travel from their home to the nearest bus stop or train station, and for disabled people the important factors are the distance they need to travel in order to achieve this, and the quality of the pedestrian environment.

A1.13 Research carried out in 1994 as a follow-up to the London Area Travel Survey ⁴ found, on the basis of 2,417 interviews, that almost a quarter of the sample could not walk for more than five minutes (which equates to approximately 50 metres, or less). Similarly, about a third of the sample could not stand for more than five minutes. Combining information on interviewees' ability to walk and stand, it was deduced that 68% of the sample would be able to manage a walk of 50 metres and a wait of one minute, whilst 40% could manage a 200 metre walk and a five minute wait. These findings suggest that, in order for local public transport services to be usable for all members of the public, there is a requirement for them to have both a high penetration into residential neighbourhoods, and be of high frequency, to minimise the time during which people need to stand and wait. (The same is true for services needing to have destinations close to where people wish to travel, in order to minimise walking distance at the end of the journey). There is also an indication here of the importance of good public transport infrastructure, so that a seat is provided at the bus or tram stop for people who might need one. Again, accurate, up-to-date and readily available information is essential, so that people who have difficulty with walking and/or standing can be confident of knowing how long they might need to wait for a service - of course, service reliability is also important, to ensure that timetable information accurately reflects the service delivered. Better still, an efficient real-time information service at stops will inform people of how long they will need to wait for a service on their arrival at the stop.

A1.14 The quality of the pedestrian environment is also very important in enabling disabled people to access the public transport network, since many obstacles might be encountered in the street environment. For instance, blind and partially sighted people can not use kerbs to guide them, or get on buses, if parked cars or goods vehicles block their way. Blind and partially sighted people and wheelchair users who have participated in research have often expressed their frustration at the lack of enforcement to prevent other road users from parking in such a way. People's experiences of walking confirm Freund's (2001) ⁵ assertion concerning the "disabling city", where the car has dominated public spaces to the exclusion and disablement of those without access to a car, with walkers encountering barriers and "walker unfriendly" spaces.

A1.15 Signage and tactile paving ⁶ are also essential for blind and partially sighted people, as they make them aware of physical features in the environment such as lamp-posts, bollards, bus stops, a pedestrian crossing or irregular changes to the pavement (such as a dropped kerb). The lack of tactile markings can make walking very dangerous. Research ⁷ has shown that blind and partially sighted people can often mistake lamp-posts for bus stops because of the lack of tactile paving to guide them. Other obstacles on pavements include parked cars, uneven surfaces, rubbish bins, shop frontages, other pedestrians and cyclists. Generally, blind and partially sighted people need to be able to walk in a straight line, preferably along the roadside or a wall, but physical barriers can make this task extremely difficult. These obstacles are also a major problem for wheelchair and scooter users (including manual and powered mobility vehicles) and often cause them to use a longer route, drive on grass or drive on the road. Research commissioned by the Department for Transport into the use of powered wheelchairs and scooters in the UK⁸, (which is due to be published in the Autumn of 2005), has found the poor maintenance of pavements and footways to be a major obstacle for users of such mobility aids. In fact, a questionnaire survey conducted for this project indicated that 86% of users of Class 2 powered wheelchairs and scooters (i.e. "pavement vehicles" designed to travel at no more than 4 mph) said that they used their vehicle on the road on some occasions, adding that this was mainly due to obstacles encountered on pavements.

A1.16 Pedestrian crossing facilities are extremely important to blind and partially sighted people, but research has found that their experience of them can be negative, due to inconsistent design within and between regions, the absence of tactile paving and audio information at some crossings and insufficient time being allowed to enable pedestrians to safely cross the road

A1.17 There is evidence to suggest that such barriers can reduce a person's confidence to travel alone, even to walk to shops that are local to that person's home. These types of barriers can also result in disabled people relying on lifts from friends and family, or Community Transport services to access local amenities. The limitation of such means is that the user does not have the freedom of choice to travel with spontaneity, nor is there the flexibility in when and where the user can travel for purposes such as shopping, leisure and social events, as well as going to work or attending college.

A1.18 To satisfy disabled people's needs when using pedestrianised facilities there is a requirement for the enforcement of restrictions on parked cars on footways, pavements, pedestrianised areas. These areas should also be kept clear of physical obstacles, as described above, and the surfaces maintained so that they are smooth, to avoid problems and accidents caused by uneven and broken pavements.

A1.19 Other problems within the pedestrian environment that have a major impact on people with walking difficulties, and in particular blind and partially sighted people, involve the relocation of bus stops as a result of service disruptions - a common impact of regeneration and construction work. Disabled people need to be made aware of such changes before they make a journey, otherwise, as research has indicated, it could lead to many people not making the journey in the future, especially if it reduces their confidence to travel alone.

A1.20 Sense Scotland, which has been working for over 20 years with children and adults who have communication support needs because of deafblindness, sensory impairment, and learning and physical disabilities, carried out a survey in June 2005 which asked the disabled people, families and carers it supports how easy it is for them to access facilities in town and city centres throughout Scotland ⁹. The survey was sent to over 430 families involved with Sense Scotland, of which 28 (nearly 7%) responded.

A1.21 Whilst some people felt that facilities have improved for disabled people, noting improved ramp access, many more reported having a variety of problems with the facilities in Scotland's town centres. Lack of adequate toilet and changing facilities were the most frequently reported problems, with poor access and limited space making personal care visits awkward. Some respondents specified the general lack of changing facilities for disabled teenagers or adults, since there are few facilities beyond those provided for "mother & child", and some parents called for more crèches that welcome disabled children. Pavements which are damaged, or which lack low access points, and cobbled streets were also hindrances for people. Whilst these were attitudes towards general provisions in town and city centres, they are of relevance to the issue of what should be provided in the pedestrian environment and within the public transport network.

A1.22 Respondents to the Sense Scotland survey were invited to draw up a "shopping list" of provisions that would promote easier access; this list included:

• wider stairs and aisles.
• better guides to accessible services.
• more pedestrian crossings.
• better quality paving.
• greater visual accessibility (lighting, signage etc.)
• more automatic doors.

A1.23 Just as the pedestrian environment is important in providing access to the bus, tram and rail network, access to the taxi and private hire service industries relies on accessible means for making bookings. Many disabled people find taxis and private hire vehicles to be the most appropriate and accessible form of transport - this was certainly a finding of research commissioned by the Disabled Persons Transport Advisory Committee ( DPTAC) ¹⁰ in their national survey of over 900 disabled people (including people with physical disabilities, people who were deaf or hard of hearing and people who were blind or partially sighted). This is because of the convenience and safety of the door-to-door service being offered by these means of transport, and also the facility of being able to book a (private hire) car at any time of day, (which is not possible with demand responsive services offered by the Community Transport sector). It is especially important, therefore, that such transport resources are made available to as many people as possible.

A1.24 To raise the standard of service provided for disabled people by the private hire services industry, DPTAC recently launched a Good Practice Guide ¹¹ aimed at drivers, operators and Licensing Authorities, but also at disabled people, to raise their awareness of the levels of service that they might be entitled to expect. The emphasis of these guidelines is on the provision of an inclusive service, rather than on vehicle design, and a major theme is the training of drivers in how best to assist people with different needs. It is important for disabled people that drivers should receive disability awareness training, and it is possible for Licensing Authorities to insist on this as a condition of granting an operating licence. As an absolute minimum, drivers should have access to service guidelines such as those published by DPTAC.

A1.25 An important feature of any training course is that disabled people should be involved in administering this training. Drivers should realise that a person's disability might be "invisible", and that they should always ask the customer what assistance he or she requires, if any, certainly before touching the person or any item of mobility equipment they might have. The DPTAC guide includes particular advice on how to assist people with learning disabilities, since these people might have difficulty with communicating and with handling cash. There is a description of how drivers should be trained to speak slowly and clearly, to count out change into the passenger's hand, to advise of any deviations to the usual route (for regular journeys), and to be prepared with writing implements in case something needs to be explained visually. The guidelines also advise on the needs of people with mental health problems; an important element of this advice is making drivers aware that some passengers might be subject to the side-effects of medication, which in some cases might impair their speech, or give the false appearance that they are under the influence of alcohol. The section on how best to assist people who are blind or partially sighted includes suggestions such as placing the passenger's hand on the roof of the car, informing them of the direction in which the car is facing and taking the trouble to guide them from their home to the car - and, of course, there is confirmation that a person using an assistance dog should not be refused access to a private hire vehicle, unless the driver has an exemption on medical grounds.

A1.26 The guidelines include advice on how bookings staff should be trained in assisting disabled people when they call - as this is the customer's first point of contact with the industry - and it is suggested that firms should have facilities to enable bookings from people who are deaf or hard of hearing, or who might have other difficulties with communicating (i.e. facilities such as TypeTalk, Minicom, fax or email). Affordability is acknowledged to be a very important aspect in mobility for disabled people - and taxis and private hire services are, without subsidy, more expensive than, say, buses - and there is a section (aimed at local authorities) containing advice on how to set up concessionary fares schemes, such as Taxicard or taxi vouchers.

A1.27 Of course, whilst the guidelines described above refer specifically to the private hire industry, much of the advice they give as to good practice is relevant to all sections of the public transport industry.

The Accessibility of Vehicles

A1.28 The following facilities within vehicles, which apply to all modes of public transport, are rated as most important to disabled people and are likely to enhance mobility through enabling the frequent use of public transport ¹²,

• Customer care in terms of staff assistance, driver courtesy and communication. The introduction of conductors on the Midland Metro has particularly helped to improve access for disabled people in terms of paying for tickets, finding a seat and obtaining information. Audio and visual information is essential in the absence of a conductor, and reduces the passenger's reliance on drivers.
• The physical accessibility of public transport vehicles. Low-floor buses are valuable to disabled people, particularly wheelchair users, but only if the space allocated for them is guaranteed. People with reduced mobility and blind and partially sighted people also need to have access to seats at the front of the vehicle. Non-disabled passengers should be encouraged to give up their seats at the front of the bus.
• Adequate colour contrast on doors, steps and handrails.
• Ease of ticketing. Handling cash to pay for fares on-board a vehicle can be problematic for some people, including blind and partially sighted people and people with learning disabilities. In the absence of measures to encourage off-vehicle sales of tickets or ticketless travel, drivers should be trained in being able to properly assist people for whom handling cash is a problem.
• Safety and feeling of personal security. Research studies for DPTAC and the Department for Transport have found that there is an apprehension among many disabled people of being verbally or physically abused when using public transport (e.g. waiting at bus stops and in train stations, and on-vehicle) which can inhibit public transport use, especially at certain times of the day (e.g. after school hours and during the evening). Some 40% of disabled people in England and Wales say they are fearful of travelling by public transport, and 46% say that improvements to public transport would have a positive improvement on their life ( DPTAC, 2002). One way of addressing this barrier is the presence of conductors, which evidence suggests plays a significant role in enhancing passengers' feeling of security, in addition to standard security features such as CCTV at stops and on vehicles.

A1.29 All new trains in Britain are covered by the Rail Vehicle Accessibility Regulations ( RVAR) - these requirements are also applicable to trains which are being refurbished. The regulations cover a wide range of aspects, including the requirement for space for wheelchairs, accessible toilets, public address systems and visual signage.

Stops, Stations and Interchanges

A1.30 Within stations and interchanges, the use of Braille and tactile signage, and of tactile surfaces, would help to reduce travellers' reliance on staff to guide them, and would help to enable more spontaneous and independent travel. Audio information is needed at stops to inform blind and partially sighted people waiting at bus stops of the bus approaching (so that the person can hail it), and when the bus arrives at the stop. Visual information at stations and interchanges, especially for rail services, needs to be delivered in real-time, and show disruptions as and when they occur, to ensure access for people who are deaf or hard of hearing.

A1.31 In terms of boarding, and alighting from, vehicles at the bus stop, it is especially important to people who have difficulty with walking and with negotiating steps that drivers pull in next to, and in alignment with, the kerb, so that they are able to get on or off the vehicle smoothly and safely. To assist passengers, many buses are designed with a low floor, and others have a mechanism which enables them to kneel at a stop, to further reduce the step to the kerb. Research currently in progress, being carried out on behalf of the Department for Transport ¹³, has revealed, however, that, in spite of this kneeling capability, many drivers of such vehicles do not lower the vehicle at every stop. When asked for the reasons for using their discretion in this way, drivers often report that they feel that they are able to judge when it is necessary to use the kneeling mechanism (i.e. when a disabled or older passenger at a bus stop appears to require a smaller step). Given that many disabilities are invisible, and since drivers are certainly not qualified to make such a judgment, drivers of such vehicles should be trained and encouraged to use any such mechanism that might make boarding and alighting more comfortable for some passengers, as much as possible. (The same is true for the use of boarding aids for other modes of transport, such as ramps on taxis, etc.).

A1.32 Many railway stations were constructed many years before accessibility was a major consideration in infrastructure design, and this has created barriers for many disabled people. However, some key access facilities are required, including ¹⁴:

• Ramped access or lifts to all platforms.
• Step-free access to ticket purchase, waiting areas and refreshment facilities.
• Induction loops at all sales and information points for people who are deaf or hard of hearing.
• Tactile paving to warn users of the proximity of the edge of a platform

A1.33 A common concern of disabled people in public transport environments - particularly people who are deaf or hard of hearing, and people with learning disabilities who are at risk of becoming confused - is what might happen to them in an emergency evacuation situation. In the case of people who are deaf or hard of hearing, this is because alarms are often solely audible. It is important, therefore, that cues and direction indicators for emergency evacuation from vehicles and public transport buildings are given both visually and audibly. A further measure that might be taken is to install an innovative new product that also provides a tactile cue for guiding people who are blind or partially sighted in an emergency - this consists of a luminous plastic strip, fixed to a wall or the inside of a vehicle, which uses wedge-shaped sections to give a tactile signal as to the direction in which people should proceed for safety. When a hand is run along this strip in the correct direction, the surface is smooth; in the wrong direction, the hand would run up against the thick end of the wedges. Because this provides an intuitive indication as to the correct direction, this product might also be helpful for people with learning disabilities. Furthermore, because the strip is clearly visible in a dark or smoky environment, it is also designed to be an additional guide for people who can see, but not necessarily be able to hear an alarm.

The Transport Needs of People with Learning Disabilities

A1.34 People with learning disabilities have particular needs in relation to public transport, and ways in which these needs can be met in order to make it easier for them to use public transport were considered by the MAPLE Project ("Improving Mobility and Accessibility for People with Learning Disabilities in Europe"), a project led by Merseytravel and funded by the European Commission's Directorate for Employment and Social Affairs as part of its support for the European Year for People with Disabilities 2003. One product of this project was a brochure ¹⁵ aimed at Local Authorities and transport providers throughout Europe, giving advice on how best to assist people with learning disabilities to travel, and providing examples of innovative schemes that have been set up.

A1.35 One example that is quoted in these guidelines is the package of assistance that is provided by Warrington Borough Council. This assistance is centred on an "Independent Travel Training" scheme - "Travel Awareness Training" is a term that appears to be preferred by disabled people - whose aim is to provide people with learning disabilities, people who are blind or partially sighted, people from ethnic minority groups and people who cannot read, with all the support and guidance that they require for travelling independently by Public Transport. Warrington's package assists trainers with a training manual, a DVD and video, and a travel training "game".

A1.36 In addition, the Council provides a travel wallet and a key fob for participants in the scheme to carry with them. The travel wallet is an orange coloured wallet - the colour acts as an instant signal to bus drivers of the additional requirements of the user, and of the user's entitlement to a concessionary fare - containing a series of picture cards illustrating familiar landmarks, There is one wallet available per bus route. The key fob enables the user to obtain real-time information from many of the bus stops in Warrington.

A1.37 The MAPLE brochure reports on a similar Travel Awareness Training scheme offered by Leeds City Council to students who are entitled to "free" taxi journeys paid for by the Council's Social Services Department (up to the age of 25). Training is based on volunteers acting as travelling companions for participants; on successful completion of training, trainees are encouraged to become volunteers themselves. As well as providing students with learning disabilities with the confidence to travel alone, learning new routes so that they can access the desired educational facilities and work placements, there is a direct saving in terms of the resources that are spent on taxi fares.

A1.38 The MAPLE brochure also contains examples of innovative ideas for maps, street signs and signs on public transport vehicles - many of which use pictograms instead of text - which might be suitable for people with learning disabilities. The document concludes by suggesting, with illustrative examples, that the careful design of public transport infrastructure, so that there is an emphasis on unobstructed sight-lines and all major features of a station or interchange are prominent and easy to see, precludes the use of much visual signage. For example, signs indicating "to the trains" are unnecessary if trains and platforms and walkways to them are clearly visible from the entrance to the facility.

Table A1.1 - Information Requirements, by Disability and Mode of Transport

Actions required to help improve the accessibility, availability and infrastructure of public transport

Summary

A1.39 The most important actions needed to fulfill the needs of disabled people are connected with the following principles,

• Availability and accuracy of information.
• Consistency in the design of infrastructure.
• The "Chain of accessibility": acknowledging the truism that the possibility of a disabled person making a journey is a function of the nature of the least accessible link in the chain of trips and actions.

A1.40 In common with any users of a public transport system, disabled people require accurate, reliable and timely information - in fact, disabled travellers place a higher level of importance on the provision of information on all aspects of a journey, before setting out on a trip, than non-disabled people. Items of information that are of particular importance to disabled people, such as the availability of (accessible) toilet facilities and the availability of assistance, and their relative importance, are outlined in the following report.

A1.41 The general action of assisting disabled people by making the physical public transport environment accessible is well documented, and several design guidelines for achieving this have been published. Whilst there are specialist guides to the accessible design of signage, internet sites and public transport vehicles etc., the most authoritative overview is provided by the Department for Transport's "Inclusive Mobility"; although space does not allow for a detailed account of all of the measures, measurements and dimensions quoted in this publication, the following report contains a description of its main content.

A1.42 According to research commissioned to obtain information on the extent and type of transport provision available in Scotland which meets the needs of disabled users ¹⁶, approximately 640,000 people in Scotland (12% of the total population) are estimated to have some form of impairment. Amongst these, approximately 260,000 (5%) are likely to have significant difficulty in using public transport, while the remainder may, at some time, experience some level of difficulty.

A1.43 This research included an appraisal of the gaps in disabled people's needs in terms of public transport; it was concluded that these needs fall into five main areas:

• Public transport policy and co-ordination. At a national level, there was no overall strategy for the development of accessible public transport. At a local level, there were few existing strategies.
• Access to services and facilities. Barriers were found relating to all modes of transport studied. Only 15% of Scotland's bus fleet had a low floor and some strategically important bus stations were inaccessible to disabled people; many trains were inaccessible due to lack of ramps and only 51 of over 300 stations were accessible in all areas for wheelchair users; ferry terminals were fairly accessible but means of boarding some vessels was particularly difficult for disabled people; means of boarding aircraft at some airports involved physical lifting of a disabled person up the aircraft steps and no aircraft in Scotland was large enough to carry on-board wheelchairs; outside major cities there were few accessible taxis; Glasgow's underground system was inaccessible to disabled people with reduced mobility.
• Staff training. Significant gaps were found in relation to disability issues, and, in a few cases, the policies of transport providers were found to militate against the independent use of their services by disabled people.
• Availability of information. This was found to be increasing, although there was still a lack of information relating to physical access and facilities, and to assist multi-modal journey planning.
• Few transport providers were found to undertake extensive or proactive consultation with disabled people.

A1.44 The recommendations of the study were:

• A national group comprising transport providers, disabled people and policy makers should be established to develop a strategy.
• At a local level, strategies reflecting local needs should be developed.
• Transport providers should be encouraged to adopt an audit based approach to assessing the accessibility of their facilities.
• General awareness relating to transport and disability issues should be improved.
• Multi-modal information systems should be developed.
• Mechanisms should be identified for regular consultation with disabled people in the formulation of national and local transport policy.

A1.45 A survey of Fife's Passenger Transport Needs identified that the development of improved co-ordination mechanisms may lead to improved efficiency and effectiveness in relation to the delivery of transport services to those with particular needs. The review identified that some considerable work is required to identify how best to undertake such co-ordination and generated a number of options which were assessed against an evaluation framework to identify which ways might enable improvement in the provision of services within the context of Best Value. The survey suggested that, because of the number of people who are cared for in the community, there will be more complex support needs being met in community settings with the requirement to travel to and from a range of ordinary services which other citizens take for granted.

A1.46 A broad continuum of need was identified, ranging from door to door transport to the potential for independent travel and public transport by those who are able to do so with or without support. Also highlighted was the need to develop more accessible public transport which can cater for more complex needs of individuals with mobility and other difficulties. In addition, the review identified the need for more flexible arrangements in the co-ordination and delivery of transport. One of the key issues raised by service users was their view that they have little alternative access to suitable public transport systems which is why they rely on direct provision by Fife Council.

A1.47 Many service users viewed the fact that transport was free to the user as a highly positive feature, and there were generally positive views of the support staff, drivers and attendants. One of the less positive issues identified by service users was the non availability of alternative modes of transport through public provision.

Availability of Information

A1.48 A conclusion of the Department for Transport commissioned research into the needs of disabled people in relation to the traveline and Transport Direct services, after an examination of the requirements of the Disability Discrimination Act, is that information providers should at least have the strategic objective of providing certain items of information of particular importance to disabled people; these include,

• The availability of (accessible) toilets
• The availability of assistance for disabled people from staff at stops and stations
• The accessibility of individual stops and stations
• The accessibility of vehicles normally used on a route
• Contact details of taxi companies serving major stops and stations
• Contact details of specialist organisations that might help disabled people with requirements that are beyond the scope of traveline and Transport Direct

A1.49 A more immediate priority, however, is that call centres should be able to give out information that is deemed to be "essential" for disabled people when they plan to undertake a journey, (provided that it can be readily collected, and at a reasonable cost). Such information includes details of the general availability of assistance, and of the general accessibility of vehicles and infrastructure, at defined stations and on defined routes, as well as the availability of taxis. This is a pointer as to the main priorities for the type of information that should be made available for disabled people in Scotland. ¹⁷

A1.50 Other recommendations of the research were:

• The providers of information services should raise awareness of the services through national and local organisations representing disabled people
• Call Centre staff should be trained to expect that some callers might take longer to make their request for information clear, take longer to note down information that is given and/or have problems understanding the details given to them
• All information providers should have some means to handle an enquiry from a deaf or hard of hearing caller using assistive technology (such as email, text messaging, fax, Type Talk or Minicom)
• Public transport information providers should draw up a disability policy, according to the Disability Discrimination Act, to ensure that operators do not undertake practices which discriminate against disabled people.

A1.51 At a more local scale, an information service for disabled people, called "Transport Matters", a Lotteries Commission funded scheme operated in Bedfordshire, exists as a model for how similar organisations might be set up elsewhere. The objective of the Transport Matters project is to provide three levels of information and advice service:

• 'Signposting': providing trip options and contact details, (telephone numbers, email addresses etc) of transport providers, services etc
• 'Case Work': for certain individual enquiries, more detailed research and possibly longer-term support to the client is required, with the main subject areas being travel planning and adapted vehicles
• Transport 'Advocacy': this is required where the client has not received the service expected, or the standard of service has not been satisfactory. In such cases the project takes up the issue with the relevant organisation on the client's behalf.

A1.52 The project also engages with individuals and with community groups through the focused events of its outreach programme. Part of the outreach effort has included presentations to health groups and welfare groups supporting ethnic minority groups in Bedfordshire, since this is an area that has been identified as one for long-term focus.

The Design of Public Transport Infrastructure

A1.53 A number of best practice guides have been published in the UK and Europe on making public transport services more available to disabled people. In the UK, "Inclusive Mobility" ¹⁸, produced for the Mobility and Inclusion Unit of the Department for Transport, is one of the most frequently cited. This document provides guidelines as to the design and delivery of services that are in line with the Government's policy for integrated and accessible transport, and the requirements of the Disability Discrimination Act (1995). The guide itself consists of 13 sections, covering walking (footways, footpaths and pedestrian areas), tactile paving surfaces, car parking, bus stops, taxi ranks, access to and within transport-related buildings, facilities at transport buildings, signage and information, lighting, access in the countryside, publicity for accessible services and disability awareness training. These areas cover all aspects of a journey that a disabled person might take by public transport. The guide is designed primarily with the needs of physically disabled people (including wheelchair users), and people with sensory disabilities, in mind. It does not, however, address the needs of people with learning and communication disabilities.

A1.54 The key principles of access design that the guide states should be borne in mind are as follows,

• Providing good access for disabled people also satisfies the requirements of many other people e.g. those who are travelling with small children or are carrying luggage or heavy shopping, those with temporary mobility problems and many older people. The guide therefore adopts a Design for All principle through which social inclusion can be achieved.
• Part V of the DDA enables regulations to be made concerning access onto and within buses, coaches, taxis and trains. The amount of space that is available, especially in taxis and smaller buses, is quite restricted, and because of this the dimensions required by the regulations, e.g. to accommodate a wheelchair user, are limited. People who use wheelchairs should take account of the amount of space available on buses, taxis and trains, and should not be misled into believing that a wheelchair which can be used in the pedestrian environment will necessarily be usable on public transport vehicles. ¹⁹
• There are solutions to the majority of access difficulties in existing buildings and in the pedestrian environment. The best options do not have to be the most expensive, nor the most disruptive.

A1.55 The Disability Rights Commission has recently produced a discussion draft of a Code of Practice to the duties of the transport industry following removal of its exemption from the Discrimination Act (subject to parliamentary approval), on behalf of the Department for Transport ²⁰. The Code is based on the Disability Discrimination Bill and the draft Disability Discrimination (Transport Vehicles) Regulations 2006. It is a supplement to the Disability Discrimination Act Part 3 Code of Practice. The Code highlights what transport providers might be expected to provide under the DDA's test of "reasonableness" in terms of what services providers are expected to provide to disabled people. One aspect of compliance with the DDA is that users' requirements and what is deemed to be "reasonable provision" are likely to change over time, and new measures will be introduced as precedents are set by Case Law.

A1.56 The Strategic Rail Authority has its own Code of Practice which sets standards for train and station services for disabled rail passengers. Under this guidance, all passenger train and station operators are expected to comply with the recommendations, many of which relate to a commitment to the improvement of accessibility and services for disabled people.

The "Chain of Accessibility"

A1.57 What is especially important for disabled people is that there should be an unbroken "chain of accessibility" from the beginning of their journey to the end. It is just as important that accurate, reliable and readily available information should be available on each leg, and each aspect, of a desired journey.

Awareness Raising

A1.58 The need for transport providers to raise awareness of accessible services to disabled people has been noted several times in this report. One effective way of doing this is through local and regional disability organisations and charities that have direct access to, and provide a source of information for, disabled people. Other effective means of raising awareness include the distribution of leaflets, information at bus stops, stations and travel centres, and the posting of information on the internet. The latter medium was shown to be widely used by disabled people for planning journeys by research conducted on behalf of the Department for Transport ²¹).

Measures needed to reach parity of mobility to all

Summary

A1.59 Whilst it is not unreasonable to have the objective of achieving a barrier-free environment and the opportunity for unlimited travel for all, many disabled people will still be restricted by the need to book assistance in advance, for example, so will not enjoy the same spontaneity of mobility as non-disabled people. Furthermore, statistically, the majority of disabled people are of retirement age, and so will have more constricted travel horizons than non-disabled people in full-time employment. Whilst it might be argued that increasing the participation of disabled people in society, so increasing their mobility levels, requires action from beyond the transport sector, the creation of a barrier-free environment and a public transport system that is accessible to all will go along way towards facilitating social change.

Parity of Mobility between Disabled People and Non-disabled People

A1.60 Foregoing sections have discussed available evidence on the public transport needs of disabled people, and measures that should be put into place to best meet these needs. However, there is more to providing disabled people with parity of mobility, so that they are able to travel and lead their lives with the same freedom as non-disabled people, than simply removing physical barriers and providing "accessibility features".

A1.61 Some research in this area has been carried out by Capability Scotland ²². The research sought to find out,

• whether public transport provision contributes to preventing disabled people from playing a full role in society, particularly in relation to education, healthcare, leisure and employment activities;
• whether disabled people experience extra costs when using public transport in terms of money, time, inconvenience or planning;
• what improvements disabled people would like to see made to public transport.

A1.62 Findings from this research can be summarised as follows,

• Exclusion from Activities. Inappropriate public transport provision contributes to the social exclusion and disadvantage of disabled people in every area of life. Public transport provision can:
  • Limit the educational choices of adults and children.
  • Cause people to miss healthcare appointments, causing knock-on effects as many have to wait months for another appointment.
  • Affect people's ability to socialise, limit people's choices of where to shop, and prevent people from going on holiday or on day trips together.
  • Prevent people from looking for work, attending interviews and accepting offers of work, and limit where people can work and what hours they can work.
• Emotional, Social and Psychological Effects. Difficulties using public transport can have hidden emotional and social effects on individuals and families:
  • Individuals can experience significant stress, anxiety and uncertainty related to the difficulties they face using and planning to use public transport, with many losing confidence in their ability to travel.
  • Some people have to plan every aspect of their lives around the transport available, leading to a complete lack of spontaneity in their lives.
  • Inappropriate staff attitudes can lead to people feeling vulnerable, patronised, demeaned or embarrassed.
  • Poor staff training, inappropriate vehicle design and inaccurate information can threaten the safety of individuals and their carers.
  • Lack of suitable public transport can segregate young disabled people from their peer group and limit their ability to develop independence and individuality.
• Money. Disabled people spend more on transport but go out less than other sections of the population. This has an extremely significant impact on the many disabled people who have comparably low incomes with the rest of society. People who are unable to use buses also experience extra financial costs as a result, at least partly because of their high reliance on taxis.
• Time. How long a journey takes influences the amount of energy needed to perform a journey, and therefore affects the decision of whether or not to travel.
• Planning. The amount of planning involved in undertaking a journey is significantly increased for certain disabled people, and was the factor most likely to prevent people from undertaking journeys.
• Inconvenience. Disabled people faced various additional inconveniences when trying to use public transport, including: an increased need to plan in advance; difficulties getting on or off vehicles; lack of information about accessibility; unsuitable toilet facilities; concerns about personal safety; the level of comfort experienced during the journey; difficulties in getting into the bus or train station.

A1.63 Whitelegg ²³ notes that transport policy in recent years has largely focused on increasing the mobility of the economically important sectors of the population. With regards to policies aimed at reducing the need to travel, it is argued in Lucas et al ²⁴ that "while from an environmental standpoint reduced mobility is the desired goal, from a social perspective enhanced mobility may be seen as contributing to social and economic vitality, and thus social inclusion". Baeten ²⁵ also raised the question as to whether "the issue of transport distribution among social groups, rather than transport volumes as such, should be at the centre of transport planning".

A1.64 Church et al ²⁶ identified seven categories of exclusion:

• Physical exclusion - where physical barriers inhibit the accessibility of services which could be experienced by disabled people, parents with children, older people, those encumbered by heavy loads or those who do not speak the dominant language of society.
• Geographical exclusion - where poor transport provision and resulting inaccessibility can create exclusion, not just in rural areas, but also in areas on the urban fringe.
• Exclusion from facilities - the distance of facilities e.g. shopping, health, leisure, education etc., from people's homes, especially those with no car.
• Economic exclusion - the high monetary or temporal costs of travel can prevent or limit access to facilities or jobs and thus income.
• Time based exclusion - refers to a situation where other demands on time, such as caring, restricting the time available for travel.
• Fear based exclusion - where worry, fear and even terror influence how public spaces and public transport are used, particularly by women, children and disabled and older people.
• Space exclusion - where security and space management strategies can discourage socially excluded individuals from using public transport spaces.

A1.65 Whilst Church et al's work refers to all people who might be at risk of being excluded, disabled people often have multiple disadvantages, in as much as they are more likely to be on a low income than non-disabled people, are more likely to be unemployed and are more likely to feel vulnerable in terms of their personal security, in addition to having lower levels of mobility.

A1.66 For example, specialist door-to-door transport is commonly provided, often through the voluntary sector, for people who are unable to use mainstream public transport. Whilst such community transport might be effective in fulfilling the need for pre-booked, fairly infrequent, trips, it does not, however, meet all disabled people's travel aspirations, especially those who require transport for employment or educational purposes. The inadequacy of community transport, as highlighted by the MORI study (2001), lies in its lack of flexibility and availability.

A1.67 Although increasing efforts have been made in recent years to make public transport more accessible for disabled people, and dedicated services provide an important service for people who are least likely to be able to use mainstream public transport services, there is still some way to go before true parity of mobility for disabled people is achieved, in as much as they do not have the freedom to travel with the same spontaneity, dignity and choice of time and means of transport as others. Evidence of this is provided by the 210 blind or partially sighted people interviewed during the 2001 MORI survey for DPTAC; this sample of respondents also said they felt frustrated that they were not able to go out on the spur of the moment because they had to book staff assistance in advance of their journey.

A1.68 TRIPSCOPE, a nationally available source of travel information for disabled people, also suggests that there is a fundamental difference in the need for journey planning information by disabled people, compared with non-disabled people. One reason for this is that non-disabled people are generally confident that they will be able to use the whole mix of public and private transport services, and may only need to know timetable and fares information before embarking on any journey, often being able to decide to switch between alternative modes en route, if desired or necessary. Disabled people have to pre-plan each entire journey (door-to-door) to ensure it is appropriately accessible for them. TRIPSCOPE reports constantly being made aware of the time-consuming difficulties disabled people have in trying to locate relevant sources of information or assistance for their particular journey, or each part of it, especially where two or more modes of transport are involved.

A1.69 The Disability Discrimination Act (1995) deals with a range of issues, including public transport. Under Part 5 of the Act, which covers public transport, the Government has introduced regulations that are intended to create the conditions for parity of mobility for disabled people. This policy is strengthened by the Disability Discrimination Act (2005), which, among other things, removes the exemption that public transport had under the original Act from compliance with some of the requirements under Part 3 (Goods, facilities and services).

A1.70 This legislation is clearly of great importance as a major part of the process of achieving parity of mobility; however, there are other issues that are not covered by these Acts. For example, a non-physical barrier to mobility and access is affordability; as mentioned above, disabled people are more likely to be on a low income than non-disabled people. Similarly, many accessible locations and accessible services are used less than they might be, simply because the people for whom they are intended do not know about them. It is therefore not enough to merely provide Access for All, but to also publicise innovations in accessibility and any newly available service.

A1.71 In terms of achieving parity of opportunity for all, this hints at the subtle difference between social exclusion and social inclusion; one is not simply the inverse of the other, in as much as "combating social exclusion" tends to focus on the removal of barriers to full participation in society, whilst the latter term emphasises the need for a proactive reaching out to individuals and communities in order to encourage increased participation. It is important to note that an important activity of the Transport Matters information service, in Bedfordshire, which might otherwise exist as a purely passive source of travel information for disabled callers, is that of outreach. This involves holding informal events in local communities, particularly in more rural locations, and speaking to people about both the advice and information service offered by the project, and the accessible travel opportunities that are locally available. Such outreach activities usually take place outside of "office hours", and involve engagement with the voluntary sector and local community schemes.

A1.72 The MATISSE Project, which was sponsored by the European Commission's DG for Employment and Social Affairs, addressed the link between transport and the general issue of social exclusion (which included addressing the needs of disabled people) ²⁷. As well as examining the ways in which transport and land-use policy over the past few decades has contributed to creating socially excluded groups, through the creation of an increasingly car dependent society and the concentration of services on fewer, larger, more sparsely distributed locations, MATISSE considered how transport policy interventions might be able to reverse this process and promote greater inclusion.

A1.73 One of the main conclusions from the MATISSE Project was that improving the availability, accessibility and affordability of public transport services is only one aspect of the observed problem, and that making an impact on the mobility of individuals and communities can only be achieved if changes are also made beyond the sphere of transport. For example, improving transport links to a neighbourhood experiencing high levels of unemployment will not itself have an impact on employment levels if there is no driving force from elsewhere to encourage job creation. In the context of disabled people, making the physical environment more accessible will not increase disabled people's participation in society if the lack of employment opportunities and discrimination in general continues to limit their need to travel more.

A1.74 However, research has shown that poor or inaccessible transport facilities can inhibit access to employment. A research study carried out by Campion et al in 2003 found that 23% of a sample of disabled people actively seeking employment had to turn down a job offer, and a further 23% turned down a job interview, because of inaccessible transport services. Most of the respondents (62% of wheelchair users and 86% of those who were blind or partially sighted) said that inaccessible transport had restricted their job opportunities.

A1.75 A general conclusion from the above discussion, however, is that, if the actual mobility levels of disabled people are to achieve parity with those of non-disabled people, then social and policy changes need to be effected beyond the sphere of transport. In order to take part in this process, therefore, those responsible for providing transport should engage with policy makers in other sectors, such as those responsible for employment, education and social services. Whilst taking such a holistic approach, the importance of accessible transport provision as an enabler and potential instrument of change should nevertheless be promoted. As the MATISSE Project points out, the role of transport in this context is not universally accepted. When the European Union embarked on a major five-year programme to combat social exclusion, following the 2000 Lisbon Conference, Member States were committed to producing formal National Action Plans for tackling the problem; when the first plans appeared, in 2001, it was noticeable that none addressed the issue of improved transport facilities. It is recommended that this should not be the case in Scotland, with the potential contribution of accessible transport facilities and a barrier-free environment playing an important part in any future policies to achieve parity of opportunity for all.

Parity of Mobility between People with Different Disabilities

A1.76 People with different kinds of disability encounter different barriers to travel. These differences often conflict with one another; previous studies have found that catering for the needs of one type of disabled person can severely disadvantage and create problems for another group (Freund 2001). For instance, wheelchair users require smooth platforms and pavements, and dropped kerbs, to help them manoeuvre easily and cross the road. Blind and partially sighted people who use a long cane, on the other hand, require a continuous kerb for guidance, or tactile paving to help them identify a controlled crossing, for example, or the edge of a train platform, which can help to prevent them from walking into a road or onto a rail track. Tactile paving sometimes causes problems for people who have difficulty with walking and wheelchair users, making it difficult for them to cross the road or get on trains and buses. Therefore, a transport system needs to accommodate the different requirements of different groups if it is to be accessible to all disabled people.

A1.77 Prior research conducted in the West Midlands, as part of the West Midlands Area Multi-Modal Study ( WMAMMS), indicated inequalities between groups of disabled people in terms of their mobility and experiences of using transport services ²⁸. Blind and partially sighted people felt that their mobility needs have not been adequately addressed in transport policy and planning. WMAMMS looked at the mobility problems of people with physical and sensory disabilities; whilst new services, such as the low floor showcase bus routes and cross-city rail routes, were praised for their wheelchair access features, they lack other facilities essential to people with sensory disabilities. Blind/partially sighted respondents especially found local public transport services to be inadequate at meeting their individual mobility needs. In some cases, there was a general perception that transport services and walking environments had been primarily designed to accommodate the needs of physically disabled users.

A1.78 In addition to identifying the differences in the mobility needs of people with different types of disability, it is also important to recognise and address varying needs within groups. Qualitative research commissioned by Centro in 2004 ²⁹ into the needs of blind and partially sighted people identified the need for transport infrastructure to have tactile surfaces and bright yellow markings together. For example, the participants in this study had particular problems in finding their way around train stations because, while yellow lines had been provided for people with some sight, tactile paving was not provided for people with little or no sight. It was pointed out by several assistance dog users that the dogs can not see these lines to follow them, and so tactile paving is essential.

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