The Scottish Government

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Theodore J. Smayda
Graduate School of Oceanography
University of Rhode Island
Kingston,
RI 02881

November, 2004

ISBN 0 7559 1310 8 (Web only publication)

This document is also available in pdf format (1.9Mb)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 AMNESIC SHELLFISH POISONING AND PSEUDO-NITZSCHIA BLOOMS
2.1 Nature of Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning ( ASP)
2.2 Scottish coastal waters and ASP
2.3 Domoic acid, the cause of ASP: its source and vectoring
2.4 What is Pseudo-nitzschia?
2.5 Domoic acid ( DA) production by Pseudo-nitzschia species and strains
2.5.1 Influence of cell size
2.5.2 Influence of growth phase, cell division and bacteria
2.5.3 Influence of irradiance, phosphorus, silica, nitrogen
2.5.4 Iron metabolism and DA synthesis
2.5.5 Summary
2.6 Secretion of domoic acid: importance and trophic vectoring
2.7 Pseudo-nitzschia blooms and ASP in Scottish coastal waters
2.8 Distribution of Pseudo-nitzschia and DA in European waters
2.9 Vulnerability of scallops to DA intoxication relative to other shellfish
2.10 Pseudo-nitzschia, ASP and fish farms in Scotland

3.0 DINOPHYSIS BLOOMS AND DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH POISONING
3.1 Nature of Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning ( DSP)
3.2 Dinophysis species: DSP toxicity, taxonomic problems, autecology
3.3 Dinophysis blooms
3.4 Dinophysis and DSP in European coastal waters
3.5 Dinophysis blooms and DSP in Scottish coastal waters

4.0 ALEXANDRIUM BLOOMS AND PARALYTIC SHELLFISH POISONING
4.1 Nature of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning ( PSP)
4.2 Toxic Alexandrium species and PSP in Scottish coastal waters
4.2.1 Alexandrium tamarense
4.2.2 Alexandrium minutum
4.2.3 Alexandrium ostenfeldii and the toxin spirolide

5.0 BLOOMS OF OTHER HARMFUL DINOFLAGELLATES IN SCOTTISH COASTAL WATERS
5.1 Karenia mikimotoi (Gyrodinium aureolum)
5.2 Lingulodinium polyedrum

6.0 PHYTOFLAGELLATE SLOOMS IN SCOTTISH COASTAL WATERS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Flagellate X - what is it?
6.3 Ubiquity and abundance of phytoflagellates
6.4 Raphidophyte blooms
6.4.1 Heterosigma akashiwo
6.4.1a Taxonomic status
6.4.1b Blooms and fish farm mortality
6.4.1c Toxic mechanisms
6.4.2 Heterosigma akashiwo blooms and fish kills in European waters
6.4.3 Is Heterosigma akashiwo indigenous in European coastal waters?
6.4.4 Heterosigma akashiwo in Scottish and Irish coastal waters
6.4.5 Rarity of Heterosigma akashiwo blooms at fish farm sites in European waters: an enigma
6.4.5a Influence of temperature
6.4.5b Role of nutrients
6.4.5c Summary
6.5 Chattonella spp. and Fibrocapsa japonica blooms

7.0 HAPTOPHYTE BLOOMS: CHRYSOCHROMULINA, PRYMNESIUM, PHAEOCYSTIS
7.1. Chrysochromulina blooms in Scandinavian waters
7.1.1 Chrysochromulina taxonomy and autecology
7.1.2 The 1988 Chrysochromulina polylepis bloom in southern Scandinavian waters
7.1.2a Scale of mortality
7.1.2b Bloom pattern, dynamics and causation
7.1.2c Phosphorus limitation and toxicity
7.1.3 The 1991 Chrysochromulina leadbeateri bloom in Northern Norway
7.1.4 The 1992 Chrysochromulina spp. bloom in Danish waters
7.2 Prymnesium blooms and fish kills
7.3 Phaeocystis blooms
7.4 Relevance of Haptophyte blooms to Scottish aquaculture

8.0 SILICOFLAGELLATE BLOOMS AND FISH MORTALITY
8.1 Autecology of Silicoflagellates
8.2 Silicoflagellate bloom regulation and ichthyotoxicity

9.0 DIATOM BLOOMS AND FISH MORTALITY

10.0 FISH FARMS, SHELLFISH CULTIVATION AND HARMFUL BLOOMS
10.1 Aquacultural wastes: composition and habitat impacts
10.2 Fish farms, nutrient wastes and blooms in Scotland
10.3 Fish farm wastes and phytoplankton growth
10.4 Fish farm mortality, polyamines and blooms
10.5 Shellfish cultivation and blooms
10.5.1 Shellfish cultivation in Scotland
10.5.2 Extensive nature of shellfish cultivation: impacts on natural phytoplankton community
10.5.3 Vulnerability of cultured bivalves to indigenous, harmful phytoplankton species
10.5.4 Shellfish cultivation, wastes and blooms
10.6 Summary and recommendations

11.0 SCOTTISH COASTAL WATERS AS OPEN SYSTEMS
11.1 Contrasting behavior of HAB species in Scottish coastal waters and elsewhere in Europe
11.2 Ballast water introductions of HAB species into Scottish waters
11.3 Advection of HAB species in coastal currents
11.4 Scottish waters as advective sources of HAB species
11.5 Scottish waters as advective recipients of HAB species
11.5.1 Offshore advections
11.5.2 Onshore - offshore advections
11.6 Advections of HAB species in Irish coastal waters: an analogue of Scottish coastal waters
11.7 Ecophysiological capacity of HAB species for advective seedings
11.8 Summary

12.0 CLIMATE CHANGE AND HARMFUL BLOOMS
12.1 Climate, weather and harmful blooms
12.1.1 The rainfall-runoff-high irradiance event and HABs
12.1.2 Regional scale climatological events and HABs
12.2 Climate, regime changes and harmful blooms in the North Sea
12.2.1 Climate warming and harmful blooms
12.2.2 Climate and ecosystem regime changes
12.2.2a Induced versus reflected events
12.2.2b Effects of North Sea hydro-climate changes on the phytoplankton
12.2.2c Ecosystem regime shifts and climate
12.3 Climate change, aquaculture and harmful blooms in Scottish coastal waters
12.4 ASP in Scottish waters and climate change

13.0 ACRONYMS USED IN THIS REPORT

14.0 FIGURES

15.0 REFERENCES

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