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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction

1. Since the early 1990s, there has been an increasing amount of commercial activity in schools in the United Kingdom ( UK) (Atherton and Wells, 1999), mirroring a similar trend in the United States ( US). The Scottish Executive has committed to examining the range of commercial activities taking place in Scottish schools, as well as the associated costs and benefits which, at present, are relatively unknown. The current study was therefore not intended as a national audit of such activity, but rather as an initial step towards obtaining an evidence base on the extent of commercial activity currently being undertaken in a small sample of Scottish schools. It aims to provide the Scottish Executive with a greater understanding of the associated issues and explore the possibility of making good practice more widely available.

2. The main aims of the study were: to identify the range of commercial activity taking place in Scottish schools and quantify the income they generate; to identify the different types of costs and benefits (including non-financial) associated with commercial activity in schools; and to explore local authority's views and policy position on such activity, as well as investigating the potential value of the Scottish Executive producing evidence of best practice.

3. The study had three strands: a desk-based review of literature to provide a context for the research; telephone interviews with a representative of 28 of the 32 local authorities in Scotland (including those with a financial, advisory, curriculum or enterprise brief) and interviews with a representative in 50 schools across 27 local authorities in Scotland; and finally case-study work in 6 schools (2 primary and 4 secondary).

Literature review

4. The small-scale review of the literature presents a flavour of the most influential themes and issues arising from the literature ( see Chapter 2 for the key findings from the literature review). Immediately apparent is the fact that commercialism in schools appears to be on the increase. Significant benefits are clear for the schools and businesses involved, whilst the costs or consequences tend to be borne more by individuals, i.e. pupils, parents and teachers.

5. The literature has stressed the need to weigh up the implications of involvement carefully and the need for clear policies and guidance. Several sources highlighted budget constraints as a reason for schools' increasing involvement with commercial organisations, with a number offering the view that more public funding of education is required in order to avoid schools' over-reliance on commercialism with the concomitant costs that have been outlined in this review.

The extent and type of commercial activity in schools in Scotland

6. Local authority staff reported that the extent of commercial activity taking place in schools was limited and varied across local authorities. However, perceptions were related to individual interpretations of what such activity constituted, as well as the particular role of each interviewee. School staff noted that commercial activity had existed in some form or another, albeit small scale, for a number of years.

7. The four arenas of commercial activity consistently identified in the literature (product sales; direct advertising; indirect advertising; and market research practices) were used as a starting point for discussions with local authority and school personnel about the different types of commercial activity currently taking place within their schools. A summary of all activities identified within each arena (listed in order of frequency) is given in Figure 1 on page vii.

8. Product sales identified by interviewees most commonly included the sale of food and drink through school tuck shops, canteens and (mainly at secondary level) vending machines, followed by the sale of: items produced by pupils as a result of Enterprise in Education activities; school uniform; school photographs; books and catalogue goods; and stationery.

9. Direct advertising most commonly involved the sponsorship of school sports teams where companies' logo or name would be displayed on the team strips. Other forms of sponsorship included school publications such as school yearbooks, magazines, newsletters, calendars and programmes for school events in which companies paid to advertise. There were examples in secondary schools of companies providing advertising space in schools ( e.g. notice boards and poster sites), as well as logos on vending machines or water coolers. Isolated examples included the printing of lottery tickets with the company's name on and donations/prizes bearing the corporate name/log, e.g. a minibus and a computer suite.

10. Within the arena of indirect advertising, voucher schemes ( e.g. for computer, sports or musical equipment, or books) were most commonly identified, followed closely by the donation by companies of prizes for awards ceremonies or school events, and the donation by companies of cash or gifts in kind. Other forms of indirect advertising included sponsored schemes, projects or competitions, sponsored educational materials ( SEMs), the provision of conferences, presentations or workshops for pupils, branded software in schools, grant applications to businesses and a contract with a book store to allow staff to purchase books through the CPD budget.

11. In line with the findings of the literature review, market research was the least common form of commercial activity in schools. Approaches directly to schools were likely to be discouraged, as were requests for schools to be involved in research for commercial companies. Schools' involvement in educational research for reputable organisations and universities was usually supported. Some trialling of computer software and/or new products was noted, as was some research activity by pupils, usually as part of enterprise activity.

12. Rationales for Scottish schools' involvement in commercial activity sometimes differed according to the activity, but were not generally related to budget constraints, unlike several of the US sources referenced in the literature review ( see Annex 1). The majority view was that they were: to benefit the pupils, to provide some benefit for the school as a whole, to obtain funds for specifics (needs driven), that the benefits outweigh any costs/consequences, and that the activity fits with the school's ethos/values.

13. Consultation prior to becoming involved in commercial activity took place most often with school staff, particularly, at secondary level, with senior staff. References to consultation with parents were also common, as were references to consulting pupils, particularly through the pupil council. Two school interviewees stated that no prior consultation had taken place, while two reported keeping the local authority informed.

14. The income generated by commercial activities was reported by school interviewees to be low, particularly in terms of the overall school budget. Some stressed that income generation was not the purpose of any commercial activity. When asked where such income was spent, the highest ranking response was to state non-specifically that it went into the "school fund". Subsidising school trips was the next most often identified usage, while some interviewees referenced specific items such as technical equipment, books, prizes and awards, sports equipment and reinvestment in yearbooks, planners and school magazines. Overall, interviewees stressed it was used for the direct benefit of the pupils.

15. The majority of interviewees reported that commercial activity was likely to stay at current levels, although some did indicate that they were embracing expansion. Others highlighted further involvement in enterprise activity and particularly with local businesses, while another response was to indicate responsiveness depending on availability or suitability of funding. Finally, only two school interviewees related expansion to budget, i.e. if this was reduced they would be seeking funding.

The benefits and costs/consequences of commercial activity in schools

16. The most commonly identified benefits for schools regarding their involvement in commercial activity were: access to materials, equipment, prizes and trophies; enhancement of the curriculum or learning environment; financial benefits; partnerships and links with business; community engagement and links; the promotion of a school ethos/identity and parental engagement; and advantages associated with the social milieu of vending machines ( e.g. retaining pupils in school or alleviating accommodation pressure).

17. The most commonly identified perceived benefits to businesses of involvement in commercial activity in schools were: community engagement and links; PR and sales; and the provision of training opportunities.

18. The most commonly identified benefits for pupils were: pupils' increased understanding of the commercial sector; enhanced facilities, equipment and experiences; sponsorship/business involvement which brings relevance to pupils' learning; enterprise skills/activity; health-related benefits; employment opportunities; enhanced identity; the encouragement of team work; the encouragement of reading; and choice for pupils.

19. A number of benefits for pupils were only identified at local authority level. These included: the benefits associated with team working through enterprise activities; enhanced identity associated with new football strips; book sales which encouraged pupils' reading; and vending machines providing pupils with more choice.

20. Benefits for school staff included increased expertise in, and understanding of, the commercial sector. For parents, the main benefits were perceived to be the provision of essential items ( e.g. school uniform at a reasonable cost) and increased involvement in their child's school.

21. In order of frequency, the main costs to schools identified were: staff time/administrative costs; compromising or conflicting values and/or policies; the health of pupils; over reliance on funding; lack of choice in facilities or equipment provided; maintenance of equipment donated; liability for promotion; being in breach of code of conduct or financial regulations (probity); parents perceiving a lack of funding in the local authority; and the need for the school to match funding. It should be noted that these were often potential costs, rather than actual realised costs. Local authority respondents highlighted the legal consequences and financial regulations that might affect some commercial activity.

22. Costs to individuals reflected those identified for schools, including: the health of pupils; pupils' over exposure to or representation of certain products; staff time; pressure on parents (pester power); exploitation of children; pressure on pupils to participate in voucher schemes or to buy products; lack of protection for staff; financial costs; and bullying.

23. When pupils were asked to identify the benefits and costs associated with commercial activity, their responses reflected those of other interviewees. In terms of benefits, pupils focused on the improved equipment, facilities and experiences that were available to them; that they had a better understanding of how the commercial sector operated; and that they had opportunities to learn new skills via their schools' involvement in commercial activity. Pupils found it more difficult to identify costs, but were able to highlight the potential costs to their health from their use of vending machines and the risk that schools, via commercial activity, might become involved with "unethical" companies.

24. The importance of local authorities' role in "filtering" certain types of commercial activity and protecting headteachers from hard sell approaches was highlighted. Secondary schools as larger consumers may be more likely to be targeted by such approaches.

25. Overwhelmingly, interviewees felt it was easier to identify benefits rather than costs. They acknowledged that it was easier to focus on what the school got out of it, rather than look at any possible downsides. Furthermore, it was felt to be easier to quantify the benefits rather than costs which may be opportunity costs or costs more difficult to observe or value. Nevertheless, interviewees contended that if costs were too great, they would not become involved. Whilst little or no formal identification of costs was reported, "doing homework" and "weighing up all the issues" was often noted when asked specifically about steps taken to identify costs.

26. School interviewees identified certain areas of unacceptable commercial activity: primarily those that adversely affected the health and welfare of their pupils and those that related to companies that were deemed unethical, as well as those activities that were contrary to the ethos and values of the school or the local authority. The active endorsement of products by schools was viewed as unacceptable as was any commercial activity intent on influencing pupil purchasing patterns.

27. When asked directly about the impact of their current commercial activity on purchasing patterns, more than half the school respondents indicated no such impact. Most of the other responses implied it did so in either a very minor way or had actual positive effects, such as influencing healthier food options. Only two secondary respondents indicated any negative impact.

Policy and guidance on commercial activity in schools

28. Most interviewees contended that local authorities did not have a written policy or set of guidelines regarding commercial activity in schools. Opinions were mixed as to the desirability of this, but most suggested that headteachers' autonomy and responsibility was a more effective way of managing commercial activity. Where policies did exist, they were often said to be linked to other broader local authority policies and priorities and were advisory in nature.

29. Local authorities were generally thought to be cautious in their approach to commercial activities in schools. Interviewees generally noted that despite being cautious, local authorities were, in the main, supportive of schools engaging in appropriate commercial activities as long as pupils were seen to benefit. Local authorities were considered advisory and supportive, rather than proactive, prescriptive and regulatory.

30. Guidance from the Scottish Executive was generally welcomed, as long as it centred on providing information and examples of good practice rather than constituting regulations, restrictions and direction.

Key factors in good practice in commercial activity in schools

31. A number of viewpoints highlighted the need to consider and reflect carefully on the relevance and appropriateness of any particular commercial activity in schools. As well as being directly in pupils' interests and congruent with the school's values, considering the activity's contribution to schools' and local authorities' priorities was seen as a component of good practice.

32. Communication and effective management between schools, local authorities and businesses was seen as good practice, as was the involvement of local companies and the inclusion of local communities. Direct contact with businesses and partnership approaches were also noted.

33. Information, research and planning were highlighted as key elements of best practice when making a decision on allowing a commercial activity in a school. Knowing the company's motives and ethical orientation was particularly important. In addition, consultation with parents, pupils and other stakeholders was identified. There should be clearly defined aims and procedures, including adequate auditing, accounting and evaluation systems. Consideration of any legal implications was also raised.

Conclusion

34. A wide range of ethical, educational and economic issues surrounding commercial activity was raised by interviewees from schools and local authorities. There was consensus that any commercial involvement had to be of direct benefit to pupils, ethical in nature as well as congruent with the values of the school and local authority.

35. The meaning of "commercial activity" was open to interpretation and could include enterprise, world of work and health initiatives, as well as more traditional product sales. This raised the question as to whether a clearer definition of commercial activity would be of assistance in maximizing opportunities for - and encouraging consistency across - schools and local authorities.

36. The study also showed that low amounts of income and low-levels of activity were frequently reported. Colourful descriptors of such income like "a spit in the ocean" again signified that it is educational merit that drives any commercial involvement. The report questions whether this financial modesty might inhibit opportunities and investment in educationally valid commercial activity.

37. The report also questions how far costs and consequences are being fully articulated in schools' calculations regarding commercial involvement, although the "caution" and checking procedures described indicate potential costs are considered carefully. The study showed that schools and local authorities would value a document offering good practice guidelines and exemplars, and hence including accounts of commercial activity, as well as checklists and caveats, was mooted.

Figure1: Types of commercial activity identified by local authority and school personnel as currently taking place in Scottish schools (in rank order of the most frequently identified)

Source: Telephone interviews with local authority and school staff, and case-study work in the NfER study, 2005

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