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CHAPTER 5 - Secondary and Post-Secondary non-Tertiary Education

Compulsory Descriptors
Secondary Education

Secondary education in Scotland extends over six years from the age of 12. All state schools are comprehensive and pupils attend them full-time for four, five or six years. Subject choice in years 3 and 4 and 5 and 6 makes it possible for pupils to pursue academic or vocational interests, including in many education authorities work experience, but, essentially, the whole secondary curriculum is provided in each school. Education is not compulsory after the age of 16 ( year 4) and a number of pupils leave school at that point. 16 is also the age at which pupils take the examinations for the Scottish Qualifications Certificate ( SQC), formerly the Scottish Certificate of Education ( SCE), at Standard Grade or newer National Qualifications equivalents. Both Standard Grade and national Qualifications are examinations intended to cater for the whole school population. Education up to 16 can therefore conveniently be designated Lower Secondary Education and that between 16 and 18 Upper Secondary Education.

Almost all post-secondary non-tertiary education in Scotland is provided in non-advanced courses in further education colleges, which are described in Chapter 5. The secondary assessment and qualifications system is such that all pupils exit from school with certificated achievements at one or other level of Standard Grade or the new National Qualifications. Those who then continue in education follow courses designed to enable them to progress from their existing level of attainment, whether at a non-advanced level in FE or at tertiary level in an FE college or a higher education establishment.

5.1 Historical Overview

Compulsory Descriptors
Historical Perspective

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

The history and the present pattern of secondary education in Scotland are related closely to the unfolding of the industrial revolution, starting in the latter half of the 18th century. The first secondary school to be organised as an academy, i.e. as a collection of separate subject departments, each with its own head, was established in 1746 in the town of Ayr on the south-west coast. Its purpose at the time was to offer a rival form of education to that of the universities, which were deemed to be institutions for training professionals (doctors, lawyers, ministers of religion) and quite unsuited to meeting the demands of the emerging industrial society. The subjects on offer in the new type of school were to be in the main practical and vocational in their orientation, although the requirements of a liberal education were not to be forgotten. The latter half of the 18th century saw a considerable expansion of such secondary schools, which adopted an organisational pattern essentially the same as that of modern secondary schools, although without the present complexity of management arrangements or the presence of a system of guidance for pupils.

Although elementary (primary) education was made compulsory for all in Scotland in 1872, further significant expansion of secondary education did not take place until the first decade of the 20th century, when about 200 new secondary schools were founded. A number of factors contributed to its rapid development at this time. A national external examination system, overseen by the then Scotch Education Department, had been established in 1888; the statutory school leaving age was raised to 14 in 1901; and compulsory teacher training for secondary school teachers was introduced in 1906, which demanded a university degree as entry qualification and an Honours degree for those who were to teach in the later years of the secondary school. Some primary schools continued to offer education to pupils up to the age of 14 until 1936, after which date all pupils over 12 had the right to secondary education.

The series of changes which established the present-day secondary schools took place in the 1960s and 1970s, beginning with the introduction of a new Ordinary Grade examination in 1962 (later replaced by Standard Grade assessment for all, normally at the end of S4) aimed then at over 50% of pupils in the fourth year of secondary education (S4); the setting up of the Scottish Examination Board ( SEB) in 1965 (the external examination system had until then been the responsibility of HM Inspectors); the decision, also in 1965, that selection for secondary education would cease and that comprehensive schools would be introduced (a process which took about 10 years to bring about); and the implementation, in 1972, of the statutory provision, which is still in force, to raise the school leaving age to 16.

The year 1977 also saw the publication of two major reports on secondary education: The Curriculum in the Third and Fourth Years of the Scottish Secondary School (the Munn Report) and Assessment for All (the Dunning Report). The latter laid the foundations for the current Standard Grade examinations in S4.

In 1994 the Secretary of State announced plans for a new unified framework of courses and awards for upper secondary education in Scotland. The reforms, detailed in the policy document Higher Still: Opportunity for All, build on the strengths of the current system and aim to provide more demanding targets for all upper secondary pupils while not sacrificing the potential for breadth which has always characterised the Scottish system. The new system of National Qualifications is being phased in over a period of 3 to 5 years, starting in 1999.

5.2 Ongoing Debates

Compulsory Descriptors
Reform Proposal

A number of general developments are relevant to both primary and secondary schools. See section 2.2.

5.3 Specific Legislative Framework

Compulsory Descriptors
Educational Legislation

The current legislative framework applies equally to primary and secondary education and is for the most part concerned with powers given to education authorities and largely administrative matters. The main points of the Education (Scotland) Act 1980 which are specific to secondary education relate to the school leaving age and certain rights which pupils have. All young people are required to remain in full-time education until they reach the age of 16. In practice, this means that those whose sixteenth birthday falls before 1 September may leave school at the end of the previous May. Otherwise they must return to school for the first term of their fifth year and may only leave at the following Christmas. The legislation (section 1(5) (a) of the 1980 Act) entitles pupils to receive an education in which regard is had to their 'age, ability and aptitude'. They also have the right to receive personal, curricular and vocational guidance, including specific careers advice from the Careers Service, and to be supported as necessary by the psychological service, the health services and the social work department.

The Education (Scotland) Act 1981 allowed young people to attend schools outwith their local area, provided that there were places available. The Education (Scotland) Act 1996 affected both lower and upper secondary education in that it provided for a new examining body, the Scottish Qualifications Authority ( SQA), to take over the functions of the Scottish Examination Board ( SEB) and the Scottish Vocational Education Council ( SCOTVEC) and pointed the way to changes in the external examination system. The Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 has established a framework of improvement for school education in Scotland.

Class sizes in secondary schools are controlled by the Scottish Negotiating Committee for Teachers agreements. The maximum class size in stages S1 and S2 is 33 pupils, decreasing in the later stages to 30 pupils. The size of classes in certain subjects defined as 'practical', e.g. science, home economics and art, is restricted to 20.

As a consequence of the Teaching Council (Scotland) Act 1965, teachers in secondary schools must be registered with the General Teaching Council for Scotland ( GTCS) as secondary teachers of a particular subject or subjects. Learning Support teachers who are registered as primary teachers, however, may also be employed in secondary schools.

5.4 General Objectives

Compulsory Descriptors
Aims of Education, Teaching Objective

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

In general, the secondary school sets out to provide an education which prepares pupils for a place in society and which meets their personal, social and vocational wishes, and the expectations of their parents, of employers and of tertiary education. In the upper stage (S5 and S6) a particular aim is to equip pupils to profit from vocational education and training and from higher education.

5.5 Types of Institution

Compulsory Descriptors

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

All publicly funded secondary schools in Scotland are comprehensive in character and most offer six years of secondary education. They vary in size from under 100 pupils to around 2,000. The majority have between 400 and 1,200 pupils.

All secondary schools offer a general education and, alongside it, some more vocationally oriented courses for pupils from the third year of secondary education onwards. The secondary curriculum is described in section 5.13.

5.6 Geographical Accessibility

Compulsory Descriptors
School Distribution

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

Most pupils who live in the Central Belt of Scotland live within reasonable distance of a secondary school, although those who live outside the towns may have as much as an hour's travelling time to get to school each day. Pupils whose parents choose that they attend a Roman Catholic school may have farther to travel than others. In the remoter parts of Scotland, many pupils travel long distances to secondary school, sometimes in excess of 50 km in each direction. In many areas special arrangements have to be made in winter to provide accommodation for pupils who travel long distances. Where daily journeys would be impossibly long, or very difficult, for example where pupils live on an island where there is no secondary school, education authorities provide boarding accommodation or make arrangements with local householders to provide accommodation for pupils during the week.

In the more remote areas, in particular in Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles, there are 2-year and 4-year secondary schools, which offer only lower secondary education. The justification for these is that they keep pupils longer at home in circumstances where they would need to stay away from home to attend a 6-year secondary school. Many believe that retaining pupils in a small local school increases the chances that they will remain in their home area after leaving school. The courses offered in these schools do not differ essentially from the courses offered in the corresponding years of larger schools. Pupils who progress to S5 and S6 from these schools do so in a larger school at a distance from their home.

There is often pressure from local communities to retain very small secondary schools. Education authorities then have to try to ensure that pupils are not disadvantaged by remaining in a small school. For example, for many years the local air transport system has been used in Orkney to convey specialist teachers from island to island to teach their classes in very small secondary schools which could not justify a specialist teacher of their own.

5.7 Admission Requirements and Choice of School

Compulsory Descriptors
Admission Requirements, Choice of School

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

All pupils are admitted to secondary education from primary schools when they have completed seven years of primary education. There are no restrictions on entrance. Many pupils with additional support needs enter mainstream secondary schools. Pupils with profound, complex or specific additional support needs which require continuing review, for example children with visual or hearing impairments, will have the most appropriate school placement decided after full assessment and consultation with their parents. Where they attend mainstream schooling, they may, in some authority areas, be accommodated in a secondary school which has a specialist unit catering for their particular needs.

There are no restrictions on pupils staying on at school beyond the age of 16 into upper secondary education, although schools may set entrance standards for certain courses and will advise pupils which level of the National Qualifications framework is the most appropriate for them.

Most education authorities allocate children to schools in their area by defining catchment areas for each school. The Education (Scotland) Act 1980, as amended in 1981 and 2000, allows parents to express a preference for the particular school they want their child to attend, even if they do not live within the catchment area for that school. If parents express a preference for a particular school (through a "placing request"), the education authority has a duty to grant the request wherever possible. Parents have a right to appeal against an education authority's decision not to grant their placing request, first to the authority itself and then to a court. However, the size of the school, the current roll, the number of children who already live in the catchment area and other factors will affect the education authority's ability to grant a placing request and are taken into account in a court case.

5.8 Registration and/or Tuition Fees

Compulsory Descriptors
Fees

There are no fees for attendance at publicly funded schools. Provision of private education is described in section 5.19.

See section 2.8 for description of arrangements for funding schools.

5.9 Financial Support for Pupils

Compulsory Descriptors
Grant, Family Allowance

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

Measures have been taken to ensure that there is no economic bar to pupils attending secondary school up to the statutory leaving age. As in the case of primary education, free transport is available to pupils living at a distance from school; all books, materials, stationery and mathematical instruments are by law to be provided free by education authorities. Entitlement to free school meals, clothing or clothing grants is the same as that applying to pupils in primary education. (See section 4.7).

5.10 Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils

Compulsory Descriptors
Class Composition, Grouping

The first four years of secondary education are divided into two broad stages, each of which has a different emphasis. The first two years (S1 and S2) provide a general education as part of the 5-14 Curriculum; the second two years (S3 and S4) have elements of specialism and of vocational education for all. These two stages culminate in the award of the Scottish Qualifications Certificate ( SQC) at Standard Grade or equivalent National Qualification levels. From session 1999-2000, however, schools have been able, in appropriate cases, to take advantage of flexibility in the system and present pupils for Standard Grade assessment in S3 (aged 15).

In the first four years of secondary education pupils in different years are normally taught separately. However, in some schools adults may join secondary classes and be taught with school-age pupils.

Schools and subject departments within schools vary considerably as to whether teachers teach the same classes for more than one year. In small subject departments it is inevitable that this will happen. In larger departments the matter is one for the school or the department itself to decide. Some schools, however, deliberately see to it that the teacher with administrative responsibility for a particular group of pupils remains with that group for several years or that the same member of the guidance team retains a connection with a class of pupils for more than one year.

The first four years of secondary education are divided into two broad stages, each of which has a different emphasis. The first two years (S1 and S2) provide a general education as part of the 5-14 Curriculum; the second two years (S3 and S4) have elements of specialism and of vocational education for all. These two stages culminate in the award of the Scottish Qualifications Certificate ( SQC) at Standard Grade or equivalent National Qualification levels. From session 1999-2000, however, schools have been able, in appropriate cases, to take advantage of flexibility in the system and present pupils for Standard Grade assessment in S3.

In the first four years of secondary education pupils in different years are normally taught separately. However, in some schools adults may join secondary classes and be taught with school-age pupils.

Schools and subject departments within schools vary considerably as to whether teachers teach the same classes for more than one year. In small subject departments it is inevitable that this will happen. In larger departments the matter is one for the school or the department itself to decide. Some schools, however, deliberately see to it that the teacher with administrative responsibility for a particular group of pupils remains with that group for several years or that the same member of the guidance team retains a connection with a class of pupils for more than one year.

The first four years of secondary education are divided into two broad stages, each of which has a different emphasis. The first two years (S1 and S2) provide a general education as part of the 5-14 Curriculum; the second two years (S3 and S4) have elements of specialism and of vocational education for all. These two stages culminate in the award of the Scottish Qualifications Certificate ( SQC) at Standard Grade or equivalent National Qualification levels. From session 1999-2000, however, schools have been able, in appropriate cases, to take advantage of flexibility in the system and present pupils for Standard Grade assessment in S3.

In the first four years of secondary education pupils in different years are normally taught separately. However, in some schools adults may join secondary classes and be taught with school-age pupils.

Schools and subject departments within schools vary considerably as to whether teachers teach the same classes for more than one year. In small subject departments it is inevitable that this will happen. In larger departments the matter is one for the school or the department itself to decide. Some schools, however, deliberately see to it that the teacher with administrative responsibility for a particular group of pupils remains with that group for several years or that the same member of the guidance team retains a connection with a class of pupils for more than one year.

Although upper secondary education offers two years of schooling between the ages of 16 and 18, most though not all pupils remain at school for these two years. Some leave at age 16 to take up employment, training or study at a further education college. Others may leave at age 17 to undertake further education progress to a higher education course and some may proceed directly at age 17 to higher education, if they have already gained sufficient passes in their Higher examinations taken in S5.

Upper secondary education is usually organised on the basis of courses leading to certification, so that classes frequently consist of pupils from both years (S5 and S6). Adults aiming at the same certificates may also join these classes.

5.11 Specialisation of Studies

Compulsory Descriptors
Specialisation

All secondary schools offer a similar range of subjects at each stage. The main subjects at each stage are the same but what is offered beyond these is a matter for the school to decide and is governed by such factors as the size of the school and the particular qualifications of its staff. At the first stage of secondary education (S1/S2) a certain range of subjects, common to all schools, represents most of the curriculum. At the second stage (S3/S4) there is normally a greater element of choice both in the particular subjects to be taken within the 'modes of study and activity', for example, the particular branch of science to be studied, and in the additional subjects which are on offer, including vocationally based courses.

The main study options and areas of possible specialisation are indicated in some detail in section 5.13.

5.12 Organisation of School Time

Compulsory Descriptors
Arrangement of School Time

The following two sub-sections show the organisation of time on a yearly and a weekly/daily basis in Scottish schools.

5.12.1 Organisation of the School Year

Compulsory Descriptors
School Year

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

The length of the school year is nationally determined. Since 1 April 2001 the actual number of hours for teachers in education authority schools is determined by the Scottish Negotiating Committee for Teachers ( SNCT). Teachers in education authority schools are required to work a 35-hour week.

For pupils the academic year covers three terms and lasts a minimum of 190 days (38 weeks). Teachers work one week more, devoting five days to in-service training as part of their contract (see section 8.2.12).

The school year begins in mid-August and there are breaks of one or two weeks in October, December and April, the length of the break being a matter for decision by each education authority. Some education authorities also have a short break in mid-February. Schools also have a small number of single day holidays, usually on Mondays. These are determined locally and reflect Scotland's system of local holidays. The closure for the longer summer holidays takes place around the end of June. The actual dates of the school terms vary according to the education authority.

5.12.2 Weekly and Daily Timetable

Compulsory Descriptors

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

There is no fixed daily and weekly timetable applying to all schools in Scotland. The law does not define the length of the individual school day or week for pupils. These are matters for the discretion of the education authorities. Authorities do, however, adhere to a widely accepted norm for the length of the pupil week: 27.5 hours for secondary schools. There can be as much as an hour's difference in opening times and closing times and very great variation in the length and timing of the lunch break according to locality. Daily timetables are entirely a matter for the school.

For many years most Scottish secondary schools operated a daily timetable with 8 periods, usually of 40 minutes each, giving a 40-period week. In addition, teachers responsible for a group of pupils in a particular year checked attendance and dealt with various administrative matters for 10 to 15 minutes per day. Subjects involving practical work ( e.g. home economics, technical subjects, etc) were usually allocated blocks of double periods. Recently, there has been a good deal of experimenting with period length and many schools now operate a 6-period day and some a 5-period day, with periods lasting 55 minutes or an hour.

5.13 Curriculum, Subjects, Number of Hours

Compulsory Descriptors
Curriculum, Curriculum Subject, Time-table

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

The curriculum in Scottish secondary schools is not laid down by law, but advice on the curriculum of the secondary school has been given to all schools in the document: Curriculum Design for the Secondary Stages (1987, updated 1999) by the Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum ( SCCC), now Learning and Teaching Scotland ( LTS).

The SEED issued to education authorities in August 2001 a circular (Circular 3/2001) setting out the degree of flexibility within current guidance on the delivery of the school curriculum. Schools are encouraged to make appropriate adaptations of the curriculum to suit their particular pupils and circumstances.

5.13.1 Lower Secondary Education

Curriculum in the First Two Years

In S1 and S2 all pupils undertake a common course with a wide range of subjects, based on the 5-14 curriculum but with some subjects which will be new to pupils. Schools vary in the number of subjects or courses which they offer in S1/S2. An outline of typical provision, however, is shown in the following table:

A school's S1/S2 curriculum will normally be drawn up using the whole of the first column above and one or two subjects from the second.

Curriculum in the Second Two Years

Near the end of S2, the school presents pupils with an option sheet for courses in S3/S4. Pupils choose courses from the menu, which usually comprises a 'core' of subjects and an optional element (about 25-30% of the time available). An emphasis is laid on preparation for more specialised study and training, and for later life, but all pupils are expected to continue to the age of 16 with the study of English, mathematics, a science, and a social subject.

Schools base the structure of their curriculum for S3 and S4 on the recommendations of the Munn Report on The Curriculum in the Third and Fourth Years of the Scottish Secondary School (1977) and the SCCC (now LTS) guidance as contained in the document: Curriculum Design for the Secondary Stages (1987, updated 1999) Schools therefore normally design their curriculum for the second two years of secondary education using the following eight 'modes of study and activity' into which all subjects fit:

Language and communication

Mathematical studies and applications

Scientific studies and applications

Social and environmental studies

Technological activities and applications

Creative and aesthetic activities

Physical education

Religious and moral education

In addition to the full 2-year courses in S3 and S4, schools are now able to offer a variety of short courses. The most common format for such courses is that of so-called National Units leading to the award of National Qualifications by the Scottish Qualifications Authority ( SQA).

National Qualification unit courses can be used to complement the curriculum at S3/S4 and are available in a wide range of subjects. SQC (formerly SCE) Short Courses have also been available since 1988. These are now available in 14 subject areas, the most popular of which are Religious and Moral Education and Creative and Aesthetic Studies. The SQC Short Courses are being replaced by National Units leading to the new National Qualifications. However, such Short Courses are being phased out from 2002 - entries for them will be accepted until 2004. Schools can also offer Short Courses which they have devised themselves but which do not lead to national certification.

In S3 and S4 each mode is allocated a certain amount of time over two years and this determines the time allocated to particular subjects which pupils are studying for their Standard Grade assessment. The following table, reproduced from the Curriculum Design for

the Secondary Stages (1999), sets out the recommended allocations of time:

Although the majority of the modes represent aspects of general education, 'Technological activities and applications' covers a range of subjects which provide a more technical and vocational education. All pupils in S3/S4 have normally been expected to study one of the subjects listed opposite this mode for a minimum of 50 hours over two years and may take a second of these subjects as an elective. Approximately two-thirds of S3/S4 pupils currently take a full 160-hour course in a subject in this mode.

Some schools are now beginning to take advantage of the flexibility affirmed through Circular 3/2001 to adapt curricular structure in S3 and S4 for particular groups of pupils, for whom the schools judges that coverage of the full range of modes is not appropriate.

5.13.2 Upper Secondary Education

Curriculum in S5 and S6

A new unified system of post-16 National Qualifications is being gradually introduced in schools, further education colleges and training centres from 1999. These courses are based on proposals set out in the document: Higher Still - Opportunity for All, published in 1994. The detail of this system is described in section 5.17.

In upper secondary education a broad range of options is offered and the freedom of choice is generally much greater than in previous years. There are also fewer restrictions, such as having to take a subject within a compulsory mode, although almost all schools insist that pupils take a course in English.

Many pupils continue to study the same subjects as they studied in previous years at a higher level of study. Pupils who achieve the highest band of award in a range of subjects at Standard Grade in S4 typically take 5 or 6 subjects at NQ Higher level in S5. Some may take subjects at, for example, Intermediate 1 or 2, depending on their level of success at Standard Grade, while others may take a combination of Higher and Intermediate 2 subjects. Pupils have the possibility in S6 of moving on to the level above the one they achieve in S5 in any subject, or of undertaking a new subject, for example, an additional foreign language, at Higher or Intermediate 2 level. For relatively high achievers, a combination in S6 of, say, two or three subjects at Advanced Higher level and one or two at Higher is not uncommon.

The programme of work, outlined by Ministers in their response to A Curriculum for Excellence, includes commitments to: de-clutter the curriculum in primary schools; overhaul the curriculum in S1 to S3; recognise achievement in S1 to S3; deliver new courses in skills-for-work; and update and reform the curriculum across all areas of learning (beginning with science). This work will be taken forward over the next few years in partnership with schools, education authorities, employers, HMIE, LTS, SQA and many others.

5.14 Teaching Methods and Materials

Compulsory Descriptors
Teaching Method, Teaching Aid

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

The gradual introduction of mixed-ability classes to the first two years of secondary education and beyond, following the development of comprehensive secondary education in the late 1960s and early 1970s, served to heighten considerably teachers' awareness of the range of abilities which they had to deal with and led to the elaboration of a much greater range of teaching techniques than before. The need to change teaching and learning approaches was further underlined by the growing understanding of lifelong learning as society developed and the consequent greater importance of adult autonomy in learning.

In Scotland the third major factor which challenged traditional whole-class teaching was the reform of the examination system at age 16, a reform which was designed to ensure that all school leavers received a certificate detailing what they knew and could do. The reform, which introduced Standard Grade assessment, brought in new syllabuses and associated teaching and assessment methods which placed much greater emphasis on individual pupils' assignments, problem-solving activities, investigative work, exploratory talk, reporting techniques, resource-based learning, use of new technology and independent study.

At the same time all courses were re-structured into short units with continuous, formative assessment built in, so that both teachers and pupils could observe progress more clearly. The development means that most secondary school teachers now blend whole-class, direct teaching with group teaching approaches, and pay particular attention to slow learners. Following on from their primary school experience, most secondary pupils are now well able to work co-operatively or independently within groups according to a programme or work schedule devised by the teacher.

To support their teaching and their pupils' learning, teachers in many subject departments have at their disposal a range of technological aids such as overhead projectors, personal computers (most with Internet, CD-ROM and interactive facilities), television sets and video recorders as well as an extensive school library, which in some cases is staffed by a professional librarian.

Evaluation of the educational needs of pupils takes place at a number of different levels. The subject teacher in class has a responsibility to see that, as far as possible, what is being taught meets the particular needs of the pupils in that class. The teacher is expected to vary the content, speed of coverage and methodology accordingly.

Secondary schools have a well-established system of guidance, with staff who are appointed to schools with the particular remit of offering personal, curricular and vocational advice to pupils. Schools have different ways of organising their guidance systems, but it is usually the case that a guidance teacher has responsibility for a particular group of pupils either for a year or for several years. Such guidance is particularly important at the major decision points when pupils have to make choices about which subjects to take and which to discard, for example at the end of S2, and again in S4 when they choose subjects for specialisation in upper secondary education or require advice about what they might do on leaving school at the statutory age. Guidance staff, in collaboration with subject colleagues, also monitor pupils' progress in their curricular work and offer advice where necessary.

5.15 Pupil Assessment

Compulsory Descriptors
Evaluation, Pupil

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

Teachers assess their pupils' progress in a variety of ways. They watch them work, discuss their work with them, set special tasks, in which the teacher can make judgements about the pupils' performance, and set formal assessments or tests, some of which are produced by the school and others nationally.

The Education (Scotland) Act 1996 gives the Minister for Education powers to make regulations concerning the testing and assessment of pupils in S1 and S2. These powers underpin the current arrangements for the first two years of secondary education. Teachers received guidance on the process of evaluation in the publication: National Guidelines: Assessment 5-14. This encouraged them to use on-going classwork assessment to guide their interaction with pupils and their planning of teaching and to make a professional judgement from time to time about pupils' overall attainment in relation to the nationally defined levels of performance.

Teachers can use National Assessments (called National Tests until August 2003) in English language (reading and writing) and mathematics to confirm their professional judgement of the attainment levels reached by pupils. When a teacher judges that a pupil (or pupils) has/have largely completed one of the five levels (A-E) of the curriculum in the National Guidelines covering these subjects, he or she selects an assessment unit at the appropriate level from a web site and sets it for the pupil(s). These National Assessments do not lead to certification of pupils but are a means of helping teachers to ensure that their assessments are in line with nationally agreed standards. Under the terms of Departmental Circular 12/92, education authorities have agreed to ensure that schools, using nationally devised tasks in this way, confirm pupils' progress in English language and mathematics and report the results of the tests individually to parents.

For reporting on the progress of pupils to parents an exemplar report has been devised which gives information on the level of attainment in each aspect of the curriculum. This report also provides parents with information on their child's personal and social development in school. The report contains a form which allows parents to comment on it and to note points which could be discussed at parent-teacher meetings. Guidance suggests that all reports should comment on pupils' strengths and development needs, provide an overall assessment of levels of attainment, identify suitable next steps in learning, and provide an opportunity for parents to respond to the report to a named teacher. Education authorities typically require their schools to use a locally adapted version of this model.

The report on each pupil, as well going to parents, is often used, sometimes along with other internal records of teachers' assessments, to convey information to the pupil's next teacher or to the secondary school that he or she moves on to.

In the latter two years of lower secondary education and in upper secondary education, assessment of pupils' progress is carried out at a number of different levels and the methods used may vary according to the subject and the course being taken. In some subjects, particularly in those where work has been divided up into modules and where pupils may progress through these modules at their own rate, continuous assessment is often used and emphasis is on meeting the criteria which have been laid down to measure success in completing the module. Summative assessment in the form of written examinations is normal in many subjects. These are often modelled on the form of the external examinations taken for certification at the end of Standard Grade or National Qualifications courses. Section 5.17 gives a detailed account of assessment arrangements for certification.

Most schools use a similar system for recording assessment information and reporting to parents to the one they use in S1 and S2.

5.16 Progression of Pupils

Compulsory Descriptors
Promotion to the next Class

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

Promotion from year to year in lower secondary education is normally by age. Pupils move on to the next stage irrespective of their performance in any single year. The same applies to passage from S5 to S6, though at that stage pupils may often undertake courses at different levels in the National Qualifications system in either S5 or S6. Classes at this stage may therefore sometimes include both S5 and S6 pupils. (In principle, such mixing of ages in classes is possible at other stages, as a result of relaxation of the "Age and Stage Restrictions", but is more common at the upper secondary stage).

5.17 Certification

Compulsory Descriptors
Certification

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

Different arrangements for certification operate at different levels of secondary education.

The Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework ( SCQF) shows the relationship of school qualifications to those available in further and higher education.

5.17.1 Lower Secondary Education

There is no formal certification in the first two years of secondary education, though schools are expected to report to parents on pupils' attainments within the 5-14 curricular programme, based on school assessments and National Assessments in English and mathematics.

At the end of the four years of lower secondary education pupils are eligible to receive the Scottish Qualifications Certificate (Standard Grade) (formerly the Scottish Certificate of Education) of the Scottish Qualifications Authority ( SQA). This profile-type certificate, intended to be attainable by all pupils, is gained by external examination together with an element of assessment carried out by the school itself and moderated by the SQA. However, the "Age and Stage Restrictions", which regulate when young people may take their Standard Grade and National Qualifications examinations, have recently been relaxed. From session 1999-2000 schools have, in appropriate cases, presented candidates for Standard Grade examinations in S3.

The current system of external examinations at the end of S4 derives from the recommendations of the Dunning Report: Assessment for All, published in 1977, which argued for a new Standard Grade system covering S3 and S4. In Standard Grade courses, pupils are assessed against performance standards related to three levels of award: Foundation, General and Credit. Criteria for achievement for each level have been set out which give a description of what candidates achieving the award should know and be able to do. A Grade 1 award at Credit Level indicates a high degree of mastery at that level, while Grade 2 indicates a satisfactory degree of mastery. Grades 3 and 4 operate similarly at General Level as do Grades 5 and 6 at Foundation Level. The award is thus based on the achievements of the individual measured against stated standards, rather than on how his or her achievements compare with those of other candidates.

Within a Level, e.g. Credit, on all courses pupils (or any adult candidates) have to provide evidence of achievement in all the basic aspects or 'elements' of the subject. For example in English, there are separate assessments for Reading, Writing and Talking, as well as an overall grade. A 'profile' of performance stating the grade obtained in each element appears on the certificate beside the overall award for the course. Elements are assessed in a variety of ways. In the majority of courses pupils have to demonstrate attainment in oral or practical skills and these skills are usually assessed internally by the class teacher on the basis of work done during the course.

Some elements, such as Writing in English, are assessed on the basis of a folio submitted to the Scottish Qualifications Authority ( SQA) and a written examination. Others are assessed only through a written examination. In all cases, even where an element is assessed externally, teachers submit estimates to the SQA, which may be used to improve the pupils' grades in cases of disagreement. If an assessment is not available for any element, for whatever reason, no overall grade can be given for the course. The only exception to this is when a candidate with a particular disability follows an amended course excluding that element.

The official certificate issued by the SQA setting out a pupil's achievement in Standard Grade courses also records any of the National Qualifications units which have been successfully completed. The school is responsible for carrying out the assessments of the work of pupils on these Short Courses, but the SQA moderates school assessments to make sure that national standards are maintained.

A National Record of Achievement ( NRA) was introduced in a pilot scheme in February 1991. It was a standard document for recording details of qualifications and learning experiences which would be recognisable by, and command wide acceptance from, employers throughout Great Britain and beyond. The NRA was replaced by a Progress File in secondary schools from session 1999-2000. It is also available to the post-school sector, including further education colleges, and for Skillseekers training programmes. The Progress File helps users (of whom five different groups have been identified) to assess their own development; to consider what core skills they possess and how they might develop them further; to record their qualifications and their non-educational achievements; and to plan their careers.

5.17.2 Upper Secondary Education

The National Qualifications are available at five levels: Access, Intermediate 1, Intermediate 2, Higher, and Advanced Higher. The Intermediate 1 and 2 levels are equivalent to Standard Grade General and Credit levels respectively, while the Advanced Higher level is equivalent to and has replaced the Certificate of Sixth Year Studies ( CSYS).

National Qualification units and courses wholly replace the former General Scottish Vocational Qualifications ( GSVQs) and most National Certificate ( NC) modules and bring together vocational and academic subjects to ensure that these are given equal status. A key aim of the new system is to allow students of all levels of ability to progress to the highest qualification of which they are capable by working through the tiers, although there is no requirement to study at every level.

Each new National Qualification course is at one of five levels and consists of 160 hours of study, made up of three 40-hour units plus an additional 40 hours for consolidation and revision. School pupils (or students in further education) can achieve certification from SQA simply for passing separate units at a level. Assessment of this achievement is the responsibility of school (or FE college) staff, moderated by SQA. In addition, pupils/students can be certificated for whole course achievement at a level, if they pass all the component units of a course (internal assessment) and also receive a grade, A, B or C, in the external examination for the course, which is set and marked by SQA. The vast majority of school pupils are entered for National Certificate courses, and so undergo both internal and external summative assessment. However, in the case of the Access level of the system, pupils who achieve three associated units receive an ungraded "Cluster Award" on the basis of their teachers' assessments and do not take an external examination.

Employers and higher education now give more weight to core skills (key competencies). These are important in the workplace, in study and throughout all aspects of life. The new system, as well as encouraging higher and broader achievement by all students and ensuring that they can undertake relevant subjects at the right level leading to recognised qualifications, encourages students to develop the core skills of working with others, problem-solving, communication, information technology and numeracy to the highest level of which they are capable. From 2000 every person receiving a Scottish Qualification Certificate has been able to obtain credit for Core Skills achievement through a Core Skills profile. Pupils receive their first Core Skills profile when they are 16, after sitting Standard Grades at school, and are to add to and build on this as they continue through education and training.

Scottish Group Awards, which were proposed as part of the new national Qualifications framework, are currently under review. These awards, at the same five levels as other National Qualifications, consist of combinations of courses and units which make up a coherent programme of study. It was envisaged that schools would offer more broadly based group awards ( e.g. Science and Mathematics; Arts and Humanities; Technological Studies). The more specialised group awards ( e.g. Care; Communication and Media; Engineering) were considered more likely to be offered in further education colleges and training centres.

5.17.3 Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework

The Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework ( SCQF) is a framework which brings together all mainstream Scottish Qualifications. The SCQF builds on the Scottish Credit Accumulation and Transfer ( SCOTCAT) scheme, agreed by all Scottish higher education institutions and further education colleges in 1992. The SCQF is now being progressed under the partnership of the Scottish Executive, The Scottish Qualifications Authority ( SQA), The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education ( QAA) (Scottish Office), and Universities Scotland.

The framework currently incorporates all the mainstream Scottish qualifications from Access level to Doctorate level. It includes both academic and vocational qualifications provided in schools, further education higher education, and the workplace. Qualifications are allocated credit points and placed at one of the twelve component levels of the framework. Individual academic qualifications are credit-rated according to their "size" in terms of notional learning hours (1 credit point for each 10 hours of learner effort, assuming a 1200 hour learning year).

The SCQF is designed to make the Scottish qualifications system easier to understand for everyone, including employers, learners, and those involved in the provision of learning. It demonstrates the relationships between qualifications. It allows learners to plan progress towards their learning and career goals. Since it allows the transfer of credits from one qualification towards another in relevant subjects it avoids repetition of learning.

Current and future SCQF developments include work in community learning and development, in Scotland's Colleges and Schools, in the social services and health sectors, working with Employers and the recognition of prior and experiential learning. The framework will continue to develop and expand to include other kinds of qualifications and learning.

Further information can be found at the SCQF website www.scqf.org.uk

The following table summarises the levels of the SCQF and associated principal qualifications in the framework:

5.18 Educational/Vocational Guidance, Education/Employment Links

Compulsory Descriptors
Guidance

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

Guidance

In Scotland the provision of guidance services is a feature of all educational institutions both in the public and private sectors and in both schools and post-school educational institutions.

In every type of school, all teaching staff are responsible for the care and guidance of pupils. Throughout the secondary years, however, pupils in all schools also have the extra support of specially trained guidance staff. These specialists provide a service in three broad areas: personal guidance, curricular guidance and vocational guidance. Guidance staff have regular one-to-one meetings with pupils and play a significant role in helping them with subject choices as they move from S2 into Standard Grade courses and from S4 into the upper secondary school. In addition, such teachers usually make a major contribution to a school's social education programme, which often takes the form of a series of lessons mixed with talks from outside speakers. It is through the guidance system that other forms of support and advice from outside the school are channelled, such as the careers service, the psychological service and the social work service.

Careers services are provided throughout Scotland by Careers Scotland, which was established by the Scottish Executive in April 2002. Careers Scotland delivers information, advice and guidance in schools based on accurate, up-to-date information about the labour market, including job opportunities, and the full range of vocational and academic learning and training opportunities available. The role of the Careers Scotland staff is important in advising school pupils on appropriate vocational opportunities and in assisting them to assess their own potential and plan their career. In many schools, a depute head teacher or member of the guidance staff co-operates with Careers Scotland staff in ensuring that pupils receive appropriate careers guidance and acts as a link with local industry and with further and higher education. Many institutions of higher education have a school liaison service.

In every case the final decisions about career or further study rest with the pupil, assisted by his/her parents and the guidance teacher.

Enterprise in Education

The Scottish Executive's strategy for Enterpise in Education - Determined to Succeed - commits local authorities to providing enterprising and entrepreneurial learning experiences for all pupils, and opportunities for pupils aged 14+ to pursue work-based vocational learning linked to a relevant qualification and to provide appropriately focused career education for all pupils.

5.19 Private Education

Compulsory Descriptors
Private Education, Financing

The law permits individuals and bodies to provide education outside the education authority system, with certain provisos. In the case of groups of fewer than five pupils of school age, those offering the education must prove to the satisfaction of the education authority that they are providing satisfactory education. If there are five or more pupils of school age, the school must be registered with the SEED and is subject to inspection by HM Inspectorate of Education before final registration is granted. HM Inspectors have to be satisfied that the premises conform to certain basic accommodation standards, that the owners are 'fit and proper persons' to run such an establishment and that the teachers are similarly acceptable.

The Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 makes some changes to the arrangements for the registration of private schools. It requires prospective managers of any new private school to apply for provisional registration before the school becomes operational and it gives Scottish Ministers wider powers to refuse provisional registration. Private schools in Scotland are normally referred to as independent schools. Only a very small proportion of children and young people in Scotland (approximately 4%) attend such schools. Parents pay fees for the attendance of their children at these schools.

Independent schools vary enormously in size, ranging from fewer than 20 pupils to over 2,000. Some offer a complete education from pre-school age to 18; others are for primary age or secondary age pupils. Independent schools have some freedom in the number of days on which they have to open in the year. Some, in particular boarding schools, have a slightly shorter school year than education authority schools and some follow traditional English dates for holidays.

There is no legal requirement for an independent school to follow a particular teaching programme. In some schools the courses bear close resemblance to those offered in education authority schools. Others are modelled on English 'preparatory schools' or 'public schools' and prepare their pupils either to enter the English public schools system or to sit English examinations. A number have a very strong religious orientation. One is a specialist music school. There are 34 independent residential special schools and of the 6 secure accommodation provisions, 4 are independent. Most of the larger independent schools are members of the Scottish Council of Independent Schools ( SCIS), in which they can come together to discuss matters of common interest and to organise training for their staff and governing bodies.

Independent schools are inspected by HM Inspectorate of Education in the same way as local authority schools. In carrying out such an inspection, HMI take into account the stated educational aims of the school. In addition, as a result of the Children (Scotland) Act 1995, a programme of inspections of the care and welfare of residential pupils in independent schools which are boarding schools has been carried out by HM Inspectors. The Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 further adds to this to allow Scottish Ministers to serve a Notice of Complaint on an independent school in a case of "failure to provide adequately for the welfare of a child or children attending the school".

As from April 2005 all independent boarding schools require to be registered and inspected by the Scottish Commission for the Regulation of Care in accordance with the Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001.

5.20 Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures

Compulsory Descriptors

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

The range of independent schools offering secondary education is indicated in section 5.19.

The law also allows parents to educate their children at home and a very small number do so. Under these circumstances parents have to satisfy the local education authority that the education they are offering is suitable for the child's age, ability and aptitude.

There are 5 specialist music schools, of which one is independent; the others are located within larger schools run by education authorities. There is also a specialist school of dance and a spcialist sports school, both of which are loated withi schools in Glasgow. Pupils are admitted to these specialist schools only atr a rigorous audition, and competition for places is keen. Pupils in the specialist schools follow the normal, curriculum but with adjustments to allow time to be devoted to the specialism. They normally spend additional time on the specialism in the evenings, and at weekends. Pupils in these schools, however, have opportunities to take the same certificates as those in other schools.

5.21 Statistics

Compulsory Descriptors
Statistical Data

Additional Descriptors (x to left denotes that additional descriptor is covered below)

Further and more detailed statistics to those given here are available on the Scottish Executive web site at http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats

Publicly Funded Secondary Schools (September 2003)

Independent Secondary Schools

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