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LEARNER PERCEPTIONS OF INFORMATION, ADVICE AND GUIDANCE: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH

SECTION THREE: SOURCES OF INFORMATION, ADVICE AND GUIDANCE.

This section explores the range of sources of information, advice and guidance used by learners and potential learners, and the different ways in which these information sources are used by different groups. In this section funding issues have not been distinguished from other IAG issues since there is not a significant literature which focuses on this as a distinct issue. However much of the literature on how learners and potential learners, and particularly those from non-traditional groups, access IAG is also of relevance with regard to the particular issue of funding.

3.1 All learners and potential learners

There is evidence of a very wide range of sources of advice which are used by learners and potential learners. The ways in which these are used varies with respect to factors such as educational experience and qualifications, age and social characteristics.

Informal networks

An important source of information, advice and guidance that appears to be used by all adult groups to a greater or lesser extent is word-of-mouth through informal networks. Reviewing the Scottish data from the 2002 NIACE survey on adult participation in learning, Slowey (2003) comments that word-of-mouth was by the far the most common means of accessing information on learning.

Important people in the informal network can include:

Informal networks can be particularly valued because they provide information and advice based on other people's direct experience of learning (Gallacher et al, 2000; Payne, 2003; Semple et al, 2002). Semple et al (2002) also comment that the directive nature of advice from those in their informal network can be preferred by Scottish young people who are confused about their post-16 options.

The influence of friends and family may be indirect, such as friends influencing the development of a general attitude towards learning amongst those making choices at 16 (Payne, 2003); or family influencing views on education or careers options (Payne, 2003; Semple et al, 2002). Foskett, Maringe and Lumby (2003) found some evidence that young men are more influenced by peer pressure in post-16 choice than young women. David et al (2003) found that young women are more willing to involve their parents, especially mothers, in decision making about higher education than young men, who were more likely to find parental involvement intrusive or irrelevant. They also found that fathers often tried to control the choice process.

However, informal networks can vary in terms of the range and the appropriateness of information, advice and guidance they can provide (Christie et al, unpublished; Kidd and Wardman, 1999; HMIE, 2002; Semple et al, 2002). For example, Kidd and Wardman (1999) in their study of those who switch courses post-16, state that those who switched course more than once tended to cite the influence of parents and friends significantly more often than those who only switched course once. It should also be noted that while these informal networks provide information which inform choices about participation, they can also provide information, advice or guidance which discourage participation in learning (Gallacher et al, 2000; McGivney, 2000a; Payne, 2003).

Workplace

A second common source of IAG on learning reported in the literature is the workplace. The workplace can include employers, training officers or work colleagues (Aldridge and Tuckett, 2002; 2 et al, 2003; Hawthorn et al, 2002; mtl, 2003; Progressive Partnership, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Semple et al, 2002; Slowey, 2003).

This is also important for those who belong to groups who have historically participated less in adult learning. Hawthorn et al (2002) found that employers play an important part in provision of IAG for learning amongst disadvantaged groups. It has been found that groups of men generally excluded from education and training accessed information on learning mainly from their employer, though women are likely to cite a much wider range of sources (McGivney, 1999c)

Other sources

A range of other sources are mentioned with some frequency in the literature in relation to a range of groups, although the evidence suggests that they are used much less for IAG on learning than informal and workplace sources. They include:

Job centres and job clubs (Allen, 2003; McGivney, 1999c; McKeeking et al, 2002; mtl, 2003; Progressive Partnership, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Slowey, 2003; Stone et al, 2000). Issues relating to these are raised below in relation to non-traditional groups.

Careers services (Allen, 2003; Connor et al, 1999; CRLL, 2002; Foskett, Dyke and Maringe, 2003; Joyce et al, 2003; Lloyd, 2002; Payne, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Stone et al, 2000; SWA, 2000). These are used more often by young people as they make their post-16 decisions than by other groups.

Educational institutions (Christie et al, unpublished; CRLL, 2002; Fitzgerald et al, 2002; Kidd and Wardman, 1999; mtl, 2003; Payne, 2003; Progressive Partnership, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Slowey, 2003). Amongst adults in general, FE colleges were more likely to be a significant source of information than HE institutions. School can be an important source of information, advice and guidance for young people. In the Scottish data of the 2002 NIACE survey, 8% name school as a source of information, compared to 9% for FE colleges and 3% for HE institutions (Slowey, 2003).

Learndirect and other telephone helplines (Fitzgerald et al, 2002; McGivney, 1999c; mtl, 2003; NICEC, 1998a; Progressive Partnership, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Slowey, 2003). According to the Scottish University for Industry (2003), in 2002-03: 25,613 individuals were assisted online; there were 2,229,880 consumer website hits; there were 101,201 consumer helpline enquiries; 63,614 business website hits; and 2,243 business helpline enquiries. However, in reviewing the Scottish data from the NIACE survey on adult participation in learning, Slowey (2003) comments that only 1% of respondents mentioned Learndirect as a source of information on learning. While research by the Scottish Executive (2001) which included learners on adult literacy and numeracy courses, on other courses, and non-learners, states that several learners mentioned Learndirect as a source of information, in the Progressive Partnership (2003) study, also in Scotland, Learndirect was only named as a potential source of information on learning after a fair amount of prompting.

Publicity material is mentioned as a source of information in a number of studies (Connor et al, 1999; Fitzgerald et al, 2002; McGivney, 2000a; McGivney, 1999c; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Slowey, 2003). However the value of this varies for different social groups, and this will be discussed below.

The media are recognised, as a source of information. There is again evidence of variations in the use of the media, with local community papers of particular importance for those involved in community based learning (Fitzgerald et al, 2002; Gallacher et al, 2000; McGivney, 1999b; mtl, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Semple et al, 2002; Slowey, 2003). The 2002 NIACE survey on adult participation in learning showed that newspapers and magazines were given as sources of information by 13% of respondents in Scotland compared to 7% in the UK as a whole (Slowey, 2003). In research in England, mtl (2003) found that advertising is a dominant source of information for those in work.

Libraries are also a source of information, but their use and impact will be explored further below (Progressive Partnership, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Slowey, 2003).

The internet, overall does not seem to be a significant source of information on learning (mtl, 2003; Progressive Partnership, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Slowey, 2003). One of the few findings in relation to the use of the internet for this purpose is provided by Connor et al (1999) on research on applicants to HE, who found that mature and younger applicants were equally likely to have used the internet to find information.

Visits/open days are also an important source of information and advice, particularly for those who are already involved in learning (Connor et al, 1999; CRLL, 2002; McGivney, 1999a; McGivney, 2000b; McKeeking et al, 2002).

3.2 Participants in learning

Informal networks

The importance of informal networks for all learners has been noted above. With regard to participants these have been noted as being of particular importance for younger learners. Semple et al (2002) undertook research on the informal networks of Scottish young people that are drawn on for IAG. The informal network of career support included extended family, friends and those with weaker ties to the family such as family friends, neighbours and family members' colleagues. The influence of friends in the development of a general attitude towards education is also noted in Payne's (2003) review of research on choice at the end of compulsory schooling. They, and siblings, can provide information seen as more meaningful on specific options than from formal sources. Connor et al (1999) noted that people who could be referred to as 'advisers' including friends and family as well as professional careers advisers, were very important for many. Informal advisers were generally more important to young people than mature applicants.

Educational institutions

Schools are an important source of information for many young people making post-16 decisions (Callander, 1999; Connor et al, 1999; CRLL, 2002; Kidd and Wardman, 1999). The ethos or culture of school may also have an influence on decisions taken by young adults on post-16 options (Foskett, Dyke and Maringe, 2003). Payne (2003) found that individual teachers can be helpful, but are not a significant source of advice. The advice of teachers is usually to stay in full time education. Work-based training is more likely to be encouraged by parents who have followed this route than by schools. While Payne believes that the fact that school is influential on post-16 choices is accepted, the nature of this influence is not clearly known.

Payne (2003) also found that for those at the end of compulsory schooling, choices about which to college to attend can be influenced by college marketing. Kidd and Wardman (1999) state that their findings from a study on those who switch course post-16 suggest the need for post-compulsory institutions to provide 'realistic course previews' for potential students.

However, HMIE (2002) refer to evidence that young people did not always get the information and advice they needed after they leave school; they did not always get the same support at college as they had at school, and this could lead them to drop out; some young people and their parents were not aware of the opportunities available at college.

Prospectuses also emerge as an important source of advice for those entering HE. In Connor's UK-wide study on applicants to HE 40.4% stated that prospectuses were the most helpful source of information (Connor et al, 1999). However, there was some criticism of their lack of detail on courses as they were seen as promotional documents.

Visits to colleges and universities are also important sources of information and advice. Connor et al (1999) found that 26.1% of applicants to HE found a visit to the institution to be the most helpful source of information. However, visits to institutions were experiences that seemed to vary widely and not all were positive. In a study by CRLL (2002) on students in a post-92 Scottish university, it was reported that 53.1% had visited the university before applying. Of these 1231 students, 84.5% described the visit as 'important' or 'very important' in influencing their decision about the programme to apply for. Of all respondents, 15.3% of those who visited did not think it important in helping their decision. Mature applicants to HE were more likely to have attended a visit by a university representative and were more likely to have found such visits useful (Connor et al, 1999). Pupils in a study in England on post-16 decisions commented that they would like more trips to FE providers (Foskett, Dyke and Maringe, 2003).

With regard to IAG for disabled students, there seems to be some variation in both availability and quality. Hall and Tinklin's (1998) small scale research on the experiences of disabled students in HE in Scotland, reports that some students found that only a few of the institutions were willing to provide information on support available to students with disabilities, but respondents commented that it was helpful to meet with advisers from the institutions. Some support and guidance before entering HE had been received by several of the students, while other students had not received any.

There is also some limited information on the extent to which students have access to advice or guidance when they are considering withdrawal from their course. Christie et al (unpublished) undertook a study on reasons for withdrawal from university with students enrolled in 2001-02 in two universities in Scotland - one post-92 and one pre-92. Only a third had sought advice from staff in the university before withdrawing, including lecturers, tutors or advisors. The authors suggest that universities may need to better publicise their advice services, or improve their perceived accessibility to students thinking of leaving the university.

Institutions also emerge as an important source of advice on funding. For those in FE, the most common source of information on funding issues were the Student Services at the college they were attending at the time of the interview. Nearly two thirds of the students who had obtained information got it from this source, but only two out of five of them acquired this information before starting college (Callander, 1999).

Careers guidance

Young adults making post-16 choices often get advice and guidance from professional careers advisers (Callender, 1999; Connor et al, 1999; CRLL, 2002; Foskett, Dyke and Maringe, 2003; SWA, 2000). This is more often the case for young adults than for older students (Callander, 1999). Young applicants to HE were more likely than mature applicants to have attended a careers fair (Connor et al, 1999).

Formal advisers can be important to young people, as Joyce et al (2003) showed in research on young people's views on the Connexions service in England. Education, employment and training issues had been discussed with Personal Advisers (PA), and the young people felt they had received a large amount of information and personal support from them. Views on personal advisers were mostly positive, with some negative comments on communication skills and the language they used. Most respondents liked this kind of help. However, some older young people felt that they would have liked to be able to do more for themselves than have the PA do everything for them. Foskett, Maringe and Dyke (2003) comment that Connexions can be particularly important for those at a school without a sixth form.

Connor et al (1999) found that those at the end of compulsory schooling who had decided not to go on to HE or who were undecided, were more likely to name schools careers/guidance teachers as a key influence than those who had decided to go on to HE. This latter group were more likely to have named school subject teachers as a key influence. Those who switched course post-16 did not feel that their decision-making had been helped by individual guidance from a careers adviser. Those who only switched once generally reported feeling better prepared for their choice by being taught careers topics in class or talked with a careers teacher than those who had switched more than once (Kidd and Wardman, 1999). Some young people criticised careers advisers because they did not challenge the young person's stated aims; and because they cannot tell them what the experience of doing the different options will be like (Kidd and Wardman, 1999).

For some young people, the formal careers network can be unhelpful because it is non-directive, and unlike informal advisers, does not provide information on real life knowledge and experience of different learning options (Semple et al, 2002). Payne (2003) found that formal careers guidance can be less influential for young people than families. However, formal careers guidance can have an influence in selecting a course once the decision has been taken to continue in education; and with those choosing vocational courses rather than A levels. Young people tend to find careers advisers more helpful than careers teachers. Minority ethnic groups seem to find formal careers guidance less helpful then non minority ethnic groups (Payne, 2003).

However it should also be noted that informal advisers were generally found to be more important to young people than mature applicants to HE (Connor et al, 1999).

Media

Semple et al (2002) found in research on the informal networks of Scottish young people that are drawn on for IAG, that television and the media generally can be more influential for younger rather than older age groups.

Workplace

The importance of the workplace as a source of IAG for those in employment has already been commented on (Aldridge and Tuckett, 2002; Fitzgerald et al, 2002; Hawthorn et al, 2002; mtl, 2003; Progressive Partnership, 2003; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001; Semple et al, 2002; Slowey, 2003). NALS 2002 showed that 47% of those who had taken part in some taught learning had received IAG from their employer (Fitzgerald et al, 2002).

However, with regard to graduate employment, in a study in Leeds graduates expressed concern that the potential of many graduates was being wasted because of a lack of guidance available after graduates leaver higher education and enter the labour market (NICEC, 2000).

3.3 Those who do not traditionally participate in learning

Location

Shops, supermarkets, pubs and doctor's surgeries are locations that have been used to some effect to make information on learning available (Gallacher et al, 2000; McGivney, 1999a; McGivney, 1999c; McKeeking et al, 2002; Sargant, 2000; Scottish Executive, 2001), or have been suggested as good locations for this by learners and other adults (Progressive Partnership, 2003; Scottish Executive, 2001).

Libraries were not found to be a significant location for finding out about learning in some studies (Bond and Merrill, 1999). In a study on ALN and other learners, several mentioned libraries as a source of information, but mostly they had found out about the library only after starting their course, and some had found their library confusing because of the number of brochures available (Scottish Executive, 2001).

Characteristics of services valued by potential learners

The qualities that adults say they want from information, advice and guidance services include:

It was also reported that collective rather than individual approaches to providing information on learning for groups not used to engaging in educational opportunities can be effective (McGivney, 2000a).

McGivney (1999b) states that specific information on education and training opportunities for returners is lacking. Those who were not involved in training schemes knew little about training opportunities available, and felt it difficult to judge the quality and appropriateness of that which they did know about.

Ambassadors

Several studies point to the actual or potential use of adults who are currently learners to act as 'ambassadors', to encourage non-participants into learning, or to encourage those engaged in informal learning or other activities to engage in formal learning (Bond and Merrill, 1999; McGivney, 1999a; McGivney, 1999c; McGivney, 2000a; McKeeking et al, 2002; Scottish Executive, 2001). For example, McGivney (1999c) states that male learners informing others from the same social background can be effective with male manual workers. Stone et al (2000) report the views of young people not in education, training or employment who felt that people like them should go into schools to talk about their experiences so that pupils would understand the importance of school.

McKeeking et al (2002) found that an effective method of recruitment to further education was for programme staff to visit groups in the community to talk about courses and to give visual displays, but that these were particularly effective when current learners as well as staff took part.

Involvement in activities other than learning

Involvement in activities or organisations not directly connected to learning can give adults access to information and advice on learning (Bond and Merrill, 1999; McGivney, 1999c; NICEC, 1998a; Progressive Partnership, 2003; Scottish Executive, 2001). Amongst the activities that are named are toddlers' groups, family learning schemes, literacy workshops, and community groups. Word of mouth can be important in such settings.

Staff from further education colleges sometimes arrange visits to these groups, or arrange for groups to visit the college (McGivney, 1999a; McKeeking et al, 2002). An example is also given of an outreach guidance worker who visited a variety of community groups providing information and guidance on informal learning, and gave ongoing information and support on for example childcare and travel to those who went on to enrol on a college course (McGivney, 1999a).

Other professionals

Referrals, or more informal help, from professionals other than those working in the careers guidance field, such as social workers, health workers, community education workers, housing officers, and / or those working for religious organisations, can be important ways for people to access information (Anderson and Crossan, in press; Gallacher et al, 2000; McGivney, 1999a; NICEC, 1998a; Scottish Executive, 2001). Connor et al (2001), investigating the issues affecting decisions about participation in HE by lower social class groups, found that FE college tutors can be an important source of influence, encouraging young people to enter HE. Allen (2003), reporting on young people leaving care in England, state that professionals with long term engagement with the young person were best placed to provide advice and guidance on learning (eg Lifeskills mentors or New Deal advisers).

Job centresand similar organisations

Sargant (2000) found in the NIACE survey on adult participation in learning that 8% of the respondents in social groups D and E gave their main source of information on learning as the job centre, compared to 2% for the overall sample. For unemployed men, the job club or benefits office is a common location in which to access information, advice and guidance on learning (McGivney, 1999c). Stone et al (2000) found that the job centre was one of the main sources of information and advice on training and work for young people not in education, training or employment. However, they were not satisfied with the service, and some found staff unhelpful and hostile. The Scottish Executive (2001) found that referrals from the job centre were a commonly cited source of information amongst Scottish ALN and other learners. Job centres were not found to be very important in other studies (Bond and Merrill, 1999; McGivney, 1999b). Clayton and McGill (2000) found that young job-seekers at a local development company in Glasgow all felt they had not been helped to find employment or education before, despite having been registered with the Employment Service.

Prospectuses and other publicitymaterials

Conventional approaches to publicity do not work very well with groups who do not traditionally participate (McGivney, 2000b). It has been found that adults from groups who do not traditionally participate in learning do not often turn to prospectuses as their initial source of information on further education opportunities (Gallacher et al, 2000)

Door-to-door leafleting or knocking house to house is seldom worth the time and effort required. In two studies, a small number of respondents did not think that leaflets were an effective way of passing on information as too many came through their letterbox (Gallacher et al, 2000; Merrill, 1999). NALS 2002 showed that 13% of non-learner respondents had received leaflets relating to learning (Fitzgerald et al, 2002). Putting Learndirect leaflets in with social security payments during Adult Learners' Week was deemed successful (Sargant, 2000), as was putting information in with wage slips. A study by the Scottish Executive (2001) showed that a small number of respondents got information on learning from leaflets brought home by their children from school.

The language used in publicity needs to be targeted to the audience (Clayton and McGill, 2000; McGivney, 1999c). For example, McGivney (1999c) states that publicity aimed at men excluded from learning should avoid non-specific course titles, acronyms and jargon. Content of publicity is also important - for example, mention of assessment can be off-putting (McGivney, 1999c). Clayton and McGill (2000) suggest that posters publicising learning should have pictures, community languages and give information on other services available such as a free crèche.

A range of publicity is suggested to be needed by learners, and should be located in places that people are most likely to see it (Scottish Executive, 2001).

Media

Adverts in local and community newspapers can be effective (Gallacher et al, 2000; Merrill, 1999; McGivney, 1999b; Scottish Executive, 2001). Adverts on television were also mentioned in a few studies (Scottish Executive, 2001). However, 9% of non-learner respondents to NALS 2002 reported having received information on learning from the media (Fitzgerald et al, 2002).

Guidance services

Careers guidance has not generally been found to be a significant source of guidance on learning for adults in various studies (Bond and Merrill, 1999; McGivney, 1999b). NICEC (1998b) in a briefing on career guidance for disengaged young people comment that many such young people will not be able to act on career guidance before other personal difficulties are overcome, and they have achieved a level of personal security. Lloyd (2002), reporting on a pilot of an 'Into Work' programme for underachieving young men preparing for work, comments on the importance of an extended programme of careers advice rather than a one-off interview. Stone et al (2000) found in research on young people not in education, employment or training in England that these young people got most formal advice on training and work from careers advisors and job centres, but they were not satisfied with the service.

Educational institutions

A small number of adult learners in the study by Scottish Executive (2001) went to the local college to ask about courses. However, other learners in this same study pointed out that many people want to be able to go somewhere to pick up information and not be asked questions, which they fear would happen in they went into a college (Scottish Executive, 2001). Gallacher et al (2000) commented that initial contact and the way a potential student is received can be a deciding factor as to whether or not someone who is not confident actually makes it through the door. Evidence in this study shows that the community based learning centres were better at this than the more anonymous main colleges. Many do not have the confidence to walk into a college to ask about courses (Gallacher et al, 2000; Merrill, 1999).

National initiatives

NALS 2002 showed that 16% of respondents had heard of Adult Learners' Week, 7% Learning at Work Day, and 3% Family Learning Weekend (Fitzgerald et al, 2002).

Telephone helplines

McGivney (1999c) found that there is evidence that men respond to information available over the phone. However, the phone is not always the most appropriate or effective method for non-traditional groups (McGivney, 1999a; NICEC, 1998a). This can be because phoning a helpline requires an understanding of the information, advice or guidance one needs, and a level of confidence, that many in the non-traditional groups do not have. It is also suggested that some people in these groups will not have a telephone (McGivney, 1999a). Face-to-face provision is often appreciated or preferred by non-traditional learners (Lloyd, 2002; McGivney, 1999a; McGivney, 1999c).

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