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Migration and Commuting in Urban and Rural Scotland
4. Commuting to Work and Study
4.1 Introduction
Commuting behaviour provides an important indication of the linkages that exist between areas.
A strong commuting flow to a particular area may suggest that the area is rich in employment opportunities. Commuting is the process of travelling from a normal place of residence to a workplace or study location. Information from Census 2001 on workplace destination and home address is used to identify commuting patterns. As well as being able to establish the geographic areas that commuters travel between, the census also provides statistics on the distance travelled by commuters.
The chapter presents statistics on commuting in urban and rural Scotland by geographic area in order to explore which geographic areas working people commute into and how far people are commuting. The chapter then explores out-commuting from rural Scotland in more detail by looking at the destinations of out-commuters from rural Scotland and the characteristics of out-commuters. Finally, the chapter reports statistics on commuting to study for people in rural Scotland. Definitions of commuting are presented in the figure 4.1 below.
Figure 4.1: Definitions of Commuting
Non-commuter: - A person who does not travel to work outside their geographic area of residence.
Out-commuter: - A person travelling out of their geographic area of residence to their place of work.
- The percentage of out-commuters is the percentage of working people commuting out of the geographic area of residence divided by the total number of people living in the geographic area.
- Excludes people who commute within the same geographic area.
In-commuter: - A person travelling into a geographic area to their place of work from their geographic area of residence.
- The percentage of in-commuters is the percentage of working people commuting into a geographic area divided by the total number of people working in the geographic area.
- Excludes people who commute within the same geographic area.
Net-commuting: - Number of in-commuters minus the number of out-commuters.
Workplace outside Scotland: - Commuting to workplaces outside Scotland is excluded from the commuting statistics presented in this report.
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4.2 Commuting Patterns in Urban and Rural Scotland
4.2.1 Percentage of in-commuters and out-commuters by geographic area
At the time of the Census there were 2.1 million commuters in Scotland travelling to a place of work. Figure 4.2 shows the percentages of in-commuters and out-commuters by geographic area. Further details on the numbers of in-commuters and out-commuters are given later in the chapter.
The geographic areas with the highest percentages of out-commuters (people commuting to work in a different geographic area) are accessible small towns (63%) and accessible rural areas (54%). Large urban areas have the lowest percentage of people commuting out of the area to work (12%). This means that, in large urban areas, 88% of people living in large urban areas also work in large urban areas.
Figure 4.2: Percentage of In-Commuters and Out-Commuters by Geographic Area
Out-commuters 12% of people living in large urban areas are out-commuters
(92,909 of 795,592 people living in large urban areas) 34% of people living in other urban areas are out-commuters
(215,484 of 633,311 people living in other urban areas) 63% of people living in accessible small towns are out-commuters
(144,108 of 229,488 people living in accessible small towns) 35% of people living in remote small towns are out-commuters
(19,326 of 55,542 people living in remote small towns) 54% of people living in accessible rural areas are out-commuters
(162,869 of 302,408 people living in accessible rural areas) 32% of people living in remote rural areas are out-commuters
(39,934 of 124,517 people living in remote rural areas) In-commuters 26% of people working in large urban areas are in-commuters
(251,643 of 954,326 people working in large urban areas) 30% of people working in other urban areas are in-commuters
(177,680 of 595,507 people working in other urban areas) 39% of people working in accessible small towns are in-commuters
(54,264 of 139,644 people working in accessible small towns) 37% of people working in remote small towns are in-commuters
(21,368 of 57,674 people working in remote small towns) 52% of people working in accessible rural areas are in-commuters
(150,668 of 290,207 people working in accessible rural areas) 18% of people working in remote rural areas are in-commuters
(18,917 of 103,500 people working in remote rural areas) |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons who are working but not full-time students.
The geographic areas with the highest percentages of in-commuters (people commuting into a geographic area) are accessible rural areas (52%) and remote small towns (37%). Remote rural areas have the lowest percentage of people commuting into the area to work (18%).
4.2.2 Net-commuting
Table 4.1 shows the total number of out-commuters and in-commuters and the net-commuting figure (in-commuters minus out-commuters). The table also presents a ratio of in-commuters to out-commuters. For large urban areas, the ratio is 2.7 reflecting the fact that the geographic area is a draw for employment.
Table 4.1: Net-commuting
| Out-commuters | In-commuters | Net | Ratio of In-commuters to Out-commuters |
Large Urban Areas | 92,909 | 251,643 | 158,734 | 2.7 |
Other Urban Areas | 215,484 | 177,680 | -67,804 | 0.8 |
Accessible Small Towns | 144,108 | 54,264 | -89,844 | 0.4 |
Remote Small Towns | 19,236 | 21,368 | 2,132 | 1.1 |
Accessible Rural | 162,869 | 150,668 | -12,201 | 0.9 |
Remote Rural | 39,934 | 18,917 | -21,017 | 0.5 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons who are working, but not full-time students.
4.2.3 Destinations of Out-commuters
Table 4.2 gives further detail on the geographic areas of workplace of out-commuters, that is, the geographic areas people are commuting to. It also shows the rate of non-commuters.
Table 4.2: Geographic Area of Workplace Destination for Out-commuters
Urban/rural classification of origin address | Urban/rural classification of destination address (%) |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Accessible Rural | Remote Rural | Base |
Large Urban Areas | 88% | 6% | 1% | 0% | 4% | 0% | 795,592 |
Other Urban Areas | 19% | 66% | 3% | 0% | 12% | 0% | 633,311 |
Accessible Small Towns | 25% | 22% | 37% | 1% | 14% | 1% | 229,488 |
Remote Small Towns | 8% | 4% | 3% | 65% | 5% | 16% | 55,542 |
Accessible Rural | 21% | 24% | 7% | 1% | 46% | 1% | 302,408 |
Remote Rural | 6% | 5% | 3% | 13% | 5% | 68% | 124,517 |
Scotland | 45% | 28% | 7% | 3% | 14% | 5% | 2,140,858 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons who are working, but not full-time students.
Table 4.2 should be read from left to right. The rows on the left show the origin address of commuters, whilst the columns along the top show the destination address.
From table 4.2 it can be seen that:
- Those who live in large urban areas are most likely to work in the same geographic area (88%) and are therefore non-commuters.
- Those who live in accessible small towns are most likely to commute to work in large urban areas (25%) or other urban areas (22%).
- Those who live in accessible rural areas are most likely to commute to work in large urban areas (21%) or other urban areas (24%).
- Those who live in remote rural areas are most likely to commute to work in the remote small towns (13%).
4.2.4 Destinations of In-commuters
Table 4.3 gives further detail on the geographic areas in-commuters are commuting to.
Table 4.3: Geographic Area of Workplace Destination for In-commuters
Urban/rural classification of origin address | Urban/rural classification of destination address (%) |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Accessible Rural | Remote Rural | Other part of the UK |
Large Urban Areas | 74% | 8% | 7% | 1% | 12% | 1% | 37% |
Other Urban Areas | 12% | 70% | 13% | 2% | 26% | 2% | 30% |
Accessible Small Towns | 6% | 8% | 61% | 2% | 11% | 3% | 11% |
Remote Small Towns | 0% | 0% | 1% | 63% | 1% | 8% | 3% |
Accessible Rural | 7% | 12% | 15% | 4% | 48% | 4% | 14% |
Remote Rural | 1% | 1% | 3% | 28% | 2% | 82% | 6% |
Base | 954,326 | 595,507 | 139,644 | 57,674 | 290,207 | 103,500 | 2,140,858 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons who are working, but not full-time students.
From table 4.3 it can be seen that:
- Of those who work in large urban areas, 74% also live in large urban areas. The remainder (26% are in-commuters).
- Of the 26% commuting into large urban areas, 12% come from other urban areas.
- Of those who work in accessible rural areas, 48% also live in accessible rural areas. The remainder (52%) are in-commuters.
- Of the 52% commuting into accessible rural areas, 26% come from other urban areas.
4.2.5 Distance Travelled
Figure 4.3 shows the percentage of people commuting more than 5km by geographic area. The figure shows that the majority of commuters living in rural areas commute more than 5km.
Figure 4.3: Percentage of Commuters Travelling more than 5km by Geographic Area
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on all people working or studying.
Table 4.4 provides further detail on the distances travelled by commuters by geographic area.
Table 4.4: Distance Travelled to Place of Work or Study by Geographic Area
Distance to place of work | Location of Workplace |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | AccessibleSmall Towns | Remote Towns Small | Accessible Rural | Remote Rural | Scotland |
Less than 2km | 39% | 44% | 38% | 65% | 24% | 31% | 39% |
2km - less than 5km | 27% | 19% | 10% | 7% | 16% | 13% | 20% |
5km - less than 10km | 20% | 11% | 15% | 5% | 20% | 15% | 16% |
10km - less than 20km | 8% | 14% | 20% | 6% | 22% | 16% | 13% |
20km to less than 40km | 3% | 9% | 12% | 10% | 13% | 15% | 8% |
40km and over | 2% | 4% | 4% | 7% | 5% | 9% | 4% |
Base | 1,107,621 | 850,482 | 303,025 | 72,305 | 374,952 | 141,698 | 2,850,083 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on all people working or studying
Table 4.4 reads from top to bottom. For example it shows that commuters from large urban areas are most likely to travel less than 2km (39%) to their place of work or study, whilst they are least likely to travel 40km and over (2%).
From table 4.4 it can be seen that:
- For all geographic areas, commuters are most likely to travel less than 2km.
- Those who live in accessible areas (small towns and rural) have higher percentages of commuters commuting more than 5km.
- Those who live in remote small towns have low percentages of commuters travelling more than 2km.
- Over 7% of commuters from remote small towns and 9% of those from remote rural areas travel more than 40km to get to their place of work.
4.3 Commuting to Work from Rural Scotland
4.3.1 Destination of Out-commuters
Figure 4.4 shows the geographic area of destination for out-commuters from accessible rural areas. Base numbers of out commuters of 162,869.
Figure 4.4: Destination of Out-commuters from Accessible Rural Areas
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons who are working, but not full-time students
Figure 4.4 shows that the majority of out-commuters from accessible rural areas are heading for workplaces located in the large urban areas (39%) and other urban areas (44%). Accessible small towns also provide an important source of employment for workers from the accessible rural area, accounting for 12% of out-commuters.
Figure 4.5 shows the geographic area of destination for out-commuters from remote rural areas.
Figure 4.5: Destination of Out-commuters from Remote Rural Areas
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census.
Based on persons who are working, but not full-time students
Figure 4.5 shows that the main destination for out-commuters from remote rural areas is the remote small towns, which accounted for 40% of out-commuters. The large urban areas are also an important workplace destination for out-commuters from remote rural areas, with 20% travelling to a workplace in these areas. Compared to accessible rural areas, the destinations of out-commuters from remote rural areas are more widely spread.
4.3.2 Access to Cars of Out-commuters
Tables 4.5 and 4.6 show the number of cars available to out-commuters from accessible and remote rural areas by the geographic area of destination.
Table 4.5: Car Access for Commuters from Accessible Rural Areas by Destination Area
Number of cars available to household | Location of workplace |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Remote Rural | Total |
None | 3.4% | 4.5% | 4.3% | 3.8% | 4.1% | 4.0% |
1 car | 32.3% | 36.0% | 36.0% | 33.9% | 38.0% | 34.6% |
2 or more cars | 64.3% | 59.4% | 59.6% | 62.1% | 57.5% | 61.3% |
Communal Establishment | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.1% |
Base | 63,292 | 72,444 | 20,330 | 2,446 | 4,357 | 162,869 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons working not studying
Table 4.5 shows that:
- 61% of commuters from accessible rural areas have access to 2 or more cars.
- There are few differences by destination area.
Table 4.6: Car Access for Commuters from Remote Rural Areas by Destination Area
Number of cars available to household | Location of workplace |
Large Urban Areas | Other UrbanAreas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Accessible Rural | Total |
None | 3.2% | 5.2% | 4.1% | 4.8% | 3.4% | 4.3% |
1 car | 32.1% | 36.4% | 36.9% | 40.0% | 35.7% | 36.9% |
2 or more cars | 64.5% | 58.0% | 58.6% | 55.1% | 60.6% | 58.6% |
Communal Establishment | 0.2% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% |
Base | 8,053 | 5,865 | 4,095 | 15,904 | 6,017 | 39,934 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons working not studying
Table 4.6 shows that:
- 59% of commuters from remote rural areas have access to 2 or more cars.
- Commuters from remote rural areas to large urban areas are more likely to have access to 2 or more cars (65%) than average (59%).
4.3.3 Mode of Travel to Work of Out-commuters
Tables 4.7 and 4.8 show the mode of travel used by commuters from accessible and remote rural areas by geographic area of destination.
Table 4.7: Mode of Travel to Work for Commuters from Accessible Rural Areas by Destination Area
Mode of travel | Location of workplace |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Remote Rural | Total |
Train or underground | 6.6% | 0.6% | 0.3% | 0.5% | 0.3% | 2.9% |
Bus, minibus, coach or taxi | 8.9% | 8.0% | 6.3% | 3.0% | 3.5% | 7.9% |
Car or motorcycle | 81.0% | 88.1% | 87.7% | 88.1% | 85.2% | 85.2% |
Other means | 3.5% | 3.4% | 5.7% | 8.3% | 11.0% | 4.0% |
Base | 63,292 | 72,444 | 20,330 | 2,446 | 4,357 | 162,869 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons working not studying
Table 4.7 shows that:
- Commuters from accessible rural areas to other urban areas, accessible small towns and remote small towns are most likely to use a car (88% for each).
- Commuters from accessible rural areas to the large urban areas are more likely to use the train or underground to reach their workplace (7%) than those commuting to other areas.
Table 4.8: Mode of Travel to Work for Commuters from Remote Rural Areas by Destination Area
Mode of travel | Location of workplace |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Accessible Rural | Total |
Train or underground | 8.5% | 1.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.5% | 2.0% |
Bus, minibus, coach or taxi | 5.9% | 5.4% | 5.4% | 7.4% | 3.3% | 6.0% |
Car or motorcycle | 75.2% | 86.1% | 88.4% | 86.8% | 88.1% | 84.7% |
Other means | 10.4% | 7.5% | 6.0% | 5.7% | 8.0% | 7.3% |
Base | 8,053 | 5,865 | 4,095 | 15,904 | 6,017 | 39,934 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons working not studying
Table 4.8 shows that:
- Commuters from remote rural areas to accessible and remote small towns are most likely to use a car to reach their workplace (88% and 87% respectively).
- Commuters from remote rural areas to large urban areas are more likely to use the train or the underground (9%) compared to commuters travelling to other areas.
4.3.4 Household Type of Out-commuters
Tables 4.9 and 4.10 show the household type that commuters from accessible and remote rural areas belong to by geographic area of destination.
Table 4.9: Household Type of Commuters from Accessible Rural Areas by Destination Area
Household type | Location of workplace address |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Remote Rural | Total |
Couple household with dependent child(ren) | 40.1% | 38.3% | 37.5% | 37.4% | 35.4% | 38.8% |
Couple household without dependent child(ren) | 46.5% | 46.4% | 46.7% | 47.3% | 47.8% | 46.5% |
Lone parent household | 5.2% | 6.7% | 6.8% | 6.2% | 6.6% | 6.1% |
One person household | 7.2% | 7.4% | 7.7% | 7.6% | 8.4% | 7.4% |
Other | 1.0% | 1.2% | 1.2% | 1.4% | 1.9% | 1.1% |
Base | 63,292 | 72,444 | 20,330 | 2,446 | 4,357 | 162,869 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons working not studying
Table 4.9 shows that:
- Commuters from accessible rural areas to all other areas are most likely to come from couple households without dependent child(ren).
Table 4.10: Household Type of Commuters from Remote Rural Areas by Destination Area
Household type | Location of workplace address |
Large Urban Areas | Other Urban Areas | Accessible Small Towns | Remote Small Towns | Accessible Rural | Total |
Couple household with dependent child(ren) | 40.0% | 33.4% | 36.1% | 38.3% | 36.0% | 37.4% |
Couple household without dependent child(ren) | 45.1% | 47.9% | 47.0% | 44.3% | 46.9% | 45.7% |
Lone parent household | 4.1% | 7.1% | 7.0% | 6.9% | 6.1% | 6.3% |
One person household | 9.5% | 9.3% | 7.7% | 8.8% | 8.9% | 8.9% |
Other | 1.3% | 2.3% | 2.2% | 1.6% | 2.1% | 1.8% |
Base | 8,053 | 5,865 | 4,095 | 15,904 | 6,017 | 39,934 |
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census
Based on persons working not studying
Table 4.10 shows that for remote rural areas:
- Commuters from remote rural areas to all other areas are most likely to be couple households without dependent child(ren).
Summary profiles of out-commuters from rural Scotland are presented in Appendix C.
4.4 Commuting to Study from Rural Scotland
4.4.1 Destination of Students from Rural Scotland
Figure 4.6 shows a comparison between accessible and remote rural areas of the geographic area of place of study.
Figure 4.6: Destination of Students from Rural Scotland
Source: General Register Office for Scotland, 2001 Census.
Based on full-time students whether or not in employment and part-time students not in employment.
Figure 4.6 shows that students from accessible rural areas are most likely to travel to study in other urban areas (42%), whereas students from remote rural areas are most likely to travel to study in a remote small town (54%). Those from remote rural areas are least likely to travel to study in a large urban area or accessible rural (both 8%). Students from accessible rural areas are least likely to travel to remote small towns to study (2%).
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