The Scottish Government

Austria

There is activity concerning learning outcomes in the university and Fachhochschule sectors. One part of the curriculum of a university study programme is the competency profile under the Universities Act 2002 ( http://www.weltklasse.ar/upload/attachment/947.pdf). In the Fachhochschule sector applications for study programme recognition must contain a survey of the educational demand and qualification requirements, under the Fachhochschule Study programme legislation Act 2003. Information on the Act can be obtained from http://www.bmbwk.gv.at/universitaeten/recht/gesetze/Gesetz-Fachhochschul-Stu4169.xml#03.

Maria Keplinger., Austrian Ministry of Education and BFUG member. Maria.Keplinger@bmbwk.gv.at

Belgium (Flemish Community)

Since 2003 a learning outcomes perspective has been incorporated explicitly in higher education for the Flemish community and in particular the definition of bachelor and master degrees based on the JQI 'Dublin descriptors'. The new parliamentary decree 2003 provides a framework for all higher education programmes, which has to be adopted by 2004-2005. These descriptors for all higher educations institutions also function as a tool for quality assurance and accreditation and are formulated in an output-oriented way ( http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs).

Marie-Anne Persoons, Flemish delegation BFUG. Marieanne.persons@ond.vlaanderen.be Luc Francoise, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Vakgroep \nieuwste Geschiedenis, Universiteit Gent, Blandijnberg 2,. B-9000 Gent, Belgium. Luc.francois@ugent.be

Belgium (Walloon Community)

There is modest development in the area of learning outcomes. There is new decree concerning Bologna developments and individual institutions are developing their awareness of the new approaches.

Chantal Czoller, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Av FD Roosevelt 28. B-1050 Bruxelles, Belgium. Czoller@admin.ulb.ac.be

Croatia

There are a number of activities taking place associated with learning outcomes at the University of Zagreb (55,000 students and 33 faculties). The main disciplines concerned are Information Technology, Engineering, Law, Medicine, Visual and Dramatic Arts, Psychology and Education. The Bologna reforms are implemented through a central body at the university, which is responsible for the implementation of ECTS and the 'transformation of study programmes'. In addition, the Tempus quality assurance project 'active learning and critical thinking across the curriculum in higher education', aims to facilitate the understanding of the learning process and elaborate learning outcomes.

Professor Vlasta Vizek-Vidovic, Vice-rector International Relations, University of Zagreb, Trg marsala Tita 14. 1000 Zagreb, Croatia. vivzek@unizg.hr

CzechRepublic

The national independent Accreditation Board for all study programmes for degrees (BSc, MSc, PhD), seeks in the documents for accreditation, 'learning objectives' to be specified besides the syllabi for all courses. Therefore syllabi are expressed in terms of learning objectives. The latter are defined as indicated in the formal 'request for information letter' that also puts an emphasis on the identification of the 'added value of the course'.

Prof. Ing. Jan M Honzik CSc Vice-Dean of Faculty of Information Technology,Brno University of Technology, Czech republic. (National ECTS/DS Coordinator) honzik@fit.vutbr.cz

Denmark

The two Danish Ministries VTU (Universities) and UvM (Schools) had meetings in January and April respectively 2004 (and launched the new Danish Qualifications Framework), where senior personnel were informed about the intentions to embed the recommendation of the Berlin Communiqué including ECTS, learning outcomes and competences. A new Ministerial order, issued to universities May 2004 covering bachelor-master programmes, calls for them to be expressed in terms of ECTS competency profiles and goals with appropriate detailed specifications of programme content.

Mogens Berg, Ministry of Science Technology and Innovation,DK-1260 Copenhagen, Denmark. mob@vtu.dk Poul Bonde, Danish ECTS/DS Counsellor, Aarhous Universitet, Fredrik Nielsens Vej 5. DK-8000, Aarhous, Denmark pb@adm.au.dk

Estonia

The use of learning outcomes is not widespread though there are some initiatives in this direction. The most advanced field is teacher education where competencies are identified and regulated by Government decree. However, the government Act does not prescribe how the competencies are to be obtained as this is the responsibility of the university. A further initiative is that of the Estonian Rector's Conference which has appointed a special task force to work on quality issues. In this context the use of learning outcomes has been elaborated in order to measure/express the student's real learning.

BFUG representative: Heli.aru@hm.ee

Finland

The Finnish Ministry of Education has created a task force for developing a new framework of qualifications. The legislation for polytechnics and universities requires detailed specifications of the degree study qualifications that include the aims of the studies and calls for extensive practical based knowledge and skills. In the university sector a number of task forces have been established that have analysed the core elements -content and competences for each curricula/field. The contents of courses are now represented in terms of learning outcomes. In the non-university (Polytechnic) sector it has been customary for some time to represent vocational course content in terms of learning outcomes.

Matti Isokallio, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Director of Student Administration, Satakunta Polytech nic, Tiedepuisto 4, FIN-28600. Finland. Matti.isokallio@samk.fi

France

Systematic reference to the notion of 'learning outcomes' (in terms of knowledge, skills and competences), whether or not the course studied is professional or academic, is still not a widespread reality in France. The conception of professional vocational diplomas ( diplômes à vocation professionelle marquée) such as those acquired from écoles de commerce certainly incorporates the idea of knowledge, but also the conception of skills and abilities that a student should have acquired upon completion of their course. Where engineering degrees are concerned, there is a tendency to define programmes in terms of the technical and technological competencies and the theoretical knowledge considered indispensable for a future engineer. However, this is more a reflection of the evolution of the job market in France where not all qualified engineers are employed as production engineers. 'Classic' university degrees are based solely on the idea of disciplinary knowledge. In the sphere of professional education, the formulation of a national index of professional certification ( répertoire national de certifications professionelles) retained as a part of the 2002 law on social modernisation (incorporating APEL) is not based on the concept of learning outcomes. In fact, this 'national index', which aims to clarify the contents and objectives of certificats, diplômes or titres issued allows the classification of diplômes and titres by subject area and level, while certificats de qualification are classed separately by subject area, and the fiches constitutives of the national index, which are currently being developed, correspond to diploma supplements. Universities are slowly beginning to realise the importance of learning outcomes and abilities for a future graduate in possession of a diplôme national de l'enseignement supérieur (national qualification of higher education). Following the reform of the validation of recognition of prior learning, introduced in France in 2002, universities were invited by the Direction de l'Enseignement Supérieur of the Education Ministry to define the 'reference of abilities' for an awarded diplôme. The objective is to assist universities to evaluate, in the fairest possible way, the experience of a certain person who wishes to take a course 'x' run by a university, or who requests the award of a national higher education qualification recognising their experience.

Helene Lagier, Bureau des Affaires Communitaire, Ministry de l'éducation nationals, de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche (MENESR). Paris, France. Helene.lagier@education.gouv.fr

Germany

In Germany, the Rectors' Conference is now actively working on creating a national 'credit and qualifications framework'. This will probably be modelled on the 'Dublin Descriptors'. It expresses qualifications in terms of knowledge ( wissen) and skills ( konnen). It is in its very early stages of development but does adopt a learning outcomes methodology to express different qualifications. Various individual higher education institutions are independently adopting learning outcomes as a way to express their curricula.

Christian Tauch, Head of International Department Hochschulrecktorenkonferenz (HRK), Ahrstrasse 39. D-53175 Bonn. Germany tauch@hrk.de Volker Gehmlich, ECTS/DS Counsellor, FH Osnabrük, Caprivistrabe 30A, Germany. gehmlich@wi.fh-osnabrueck.de

Greece

There is limited activity regarding learning outcomes in Greece. The discussion about the shift from teaching-oriented to learning-oriented approaches using learning outcomes has not begun in a systematic way. However, there are a number of isolated individual institutional/faculty initiatives in the university and non-university sectors.

Professor Dioyssis Kladdis, Bologna expert, University of Korinthos. Greece. kladis@uop.gr

Hungary

A new Hungarian qualifications framework is being designed by a group of experts under the guidance of the national Bologna Board and various cycles will be defined in the forthcoming (Autumn 2004) Higher Education Act. The new framework will provide points of reference and act as a tool for the academic community to describe the main features of a degree in the given study area. It will lay down the general criteria of competencies required for obtaining an award. The framework defines learning outcomes to be attached to each level, type and programme, clearly indicating the differences between each level. It will not prescribe the details of the content of the curriculum (as in the existing system). The intention is to replace the current content-based regulations. The new framework will serve as the basis of the new qualification requirements laid down by government decree. The national level work is intended to give impetus to institutional programme development based on learning outcomes. Institutions will be encouraged to identify and define learning outcomes to clarify for all stakeholders the knowledge, skills and abilities a student must gain. The new framework will also support and link to internal and external quality assurance dimensions.

Éva Gönczi, Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, Development and Evaluation. Szalay utca 10-14. H-1055, Budapest, Hungary. Eva.gonczi@om.hu

Ireland

There is widespread recognition and emerging use of the concept of 'learning outcomes' in Irish education and training which is inextricably linked to the development of Ireland's National Framework of qualifications. Under the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI), education and training stakeholders are seeking to recognise all learning within a framework of qualifications. A ten-level framework has been designed to encompass the widest possible spread of learning. Each level is defined by a set of learning outcomes that are expected of a learner who successfully completes an award. These learning outcomes are packages of knowledge, skill and competence that are described in a grid of level indicators. At each level of the Framework, there are one or more award-types. An award-type is a class of named award that shares common features and levels. Each award-type has its own descriptor that sets out the key features, profile and overall standards. These standards are also expressed as learning outcomes or packages of knowledge, skill and competence. Standards of awards will be expressed increasingly as learning outcomes and education and training providers are endeavouring to describe their programmes in terms of the standards to be achieved, i.e. as learning outcomes, rather than in terms of inputs and processes associated with the learning. A major development in this regard is the recent revalidation of all programmes (covering over 40 institutions and nearly 1000 programmes expressed in learning outcome format), leading to the awards of the Higher Education and Awards Council (HETAC) in accordance with the new Framework learning outcomes standards. This project was seen as successful as it drew on widespread consultation with stakeholders and produced worthwhile gains for all involved. Other higher education and training awards bodies/providers (universities and the Dublin Institute of Technology) are also engaging with this process by considering or actually starting to express learning in terms of learning outcomes.

Seán Ó Foghlú, Chief Executive National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI), Jervis House, Jervis Street, Dublin 1. Ireland. SOFoglu@nqai.ieSeamus Puirseil, Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC). Ireland. spuirseil@hetac.ie Don McQuillan, Chief Executive, Irish Universities Quality Board, 11 Merron Square, Dublin 2. Ireland. dmcquillan@iuqb.ie

Italy

The 1999 Ministerial Decree number 509 concerns the reform of the higher education system in Italy and it classifies various study programmes. For each study area the 'educational goals' are listed. The decree defines these goals as 'the body of knowledge and abilities that characterise the cultural and professional profile which the degree course confers'. Furthermore, each university regulates its own degree course programmes and establishes specific educational goals for them. Italy defines all classes of degree course in terms of professional profiles and learning outcomes.

Ms Germann Verri, Ministry for Education, University Research,Italian BFUG member.Dr Katherine Issacs, ECTS/DS counsellor, Universitsa di Pisa,Piazza Torricelli 3/A.I-56126 Pisa, Italy. isaccs@stm.unipi.it

Latvia

In Latvia there is some evidence of the development of learning outcomes approaches. Two new examples are 'Regulation on the standards for academic education' and 'Regulation on the standard of professional higher education' both include an important role for the notion of learning outcomes.

Andrejs Rauhvargers, Latvian Rectors' Conference, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Raina bvd 19,. LV-1586 Riga, Latvia. Andrejs.Rauhvargers@aic.lv

Lithuania

Lithuania has a binary system of education. In the university sector the discussion concerning learning outcomes and competences has only just started and seminars have been organised to discuss the issues. In colleges (non-university institutions of higher education), the situation is more advanced. Working groups have been formed by the Ministry of Education to establish 'professional qualification standards'. Each standard is to be agreed and then approved by ministerial decree. The ongoing process develops by identifying several clusters of expected outcomes in the standard. On graduation students will be expected to demonstrate the skills/competences they have gained from each cluster. The process is still under development.

Ms Raimonda Markeviciene, National ECTS/DS Counsellor, Head of International programmes and Relations, Vilnius University, Universiteto 3, 2734 Vilnius, Lithuania. Raiminda.markeviciene@cr.vu.lt

Malta

At the University of Malta, the terminology 'learning outcomes' is not used. Modules are described in terms of content and sometimes in terms of aims and objectives.

Veronica Grech, ECTS/DS Counsellor, University of Malta, Msida, Malta. Veronica.grech@um.edu.mt

Netherlands

Substantial activities associated with professional education (HBO) are taking place. The HBO-raad is creating a databank of domain competencies. The agreement of the various competencies is done in consultation with professional fields and organisations. The extensive process this involves is ongoing. Many institutes of higher education are in the process of expressing their final teaching objectives in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes to be attained by the student at the end of their course. The term 'competence-oriented' rather than learning outcomes is used. In universities the situation is more mixed, with marked differences between institutions where some are much more advanced than others in identifying and implementing learning outcomes.

BFUG members M.e.leegwater@minocw.nl and knottnerus@hbo-raad.nl Dr Arne van der Gen, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Einsteinweg 55, Leiden. NL-2300 Netherlands. a.gen@chem.leidenuniv.nl Peter van der Schee, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Fontys Hogeschool, Eindhoven, Netherlands p.vanderschee@fontys.nl Robert Wagenaar, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Univbersity of Groningen, Netherlands. r.wagenaar@let.rug.nl

Norway

In Norway, some study programmes have national curriculum regulations (teacher education, health and social studies, engineering) which give instructions as to how study programmes should be organised e.g. subjects that are mandatory, number of credits, description of contents, teaching method, evaluation, etc. The 'quality reforms' currently progressing in Norway involves the specification of the assessment of grades being assessed relative to specific skills and abilities. This work has been initiated by the Norwegian Council for Higher Education and will be carried out by the appropriate National Committee for each disciplinary area. The work is in its early stages and is focused on the development of detailed discipline-based criteria for the purposes of grading. Work on a national qualifications framework has begun as a follow-up to the Berlin Communiqué.

Professor George Francis, University of Bergen, Department of Chemistry, Allegaten 41. N-5007, Norway. nkjfr@kj.uib.no Ms Tone Flood StromAdvisor, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Research, Norway tfs@ufd.dep.no

Poland

There is relatively little activity in Poland at present. There is some discussion of learning outcomes within the academic community and the ministry. The latest documents on standards for study programmes include descriptions of graduates in terms of their knowledge and also their skills.

Maria Misiewicz, ECTS National Counsellor, Director of the Teaching Department, Uniwersytet Wroclawski, PL Uniwersytecki 1. PL-50137, Wroclaw, Poland. Mami@adm.uni.wroc.pl

Portugal

There appear to be no specific national developments to introduce learning outcomes. However, many universities are trying to define competences for graduate programmes along with the appropriate methodologies associated with them. For example in 1999-2000 the University of Aveiro had undertaken a process to 'rethink the curricula'. This involved the definition of general competences for graduates (cognitive and communication) and for subject area and degree programmes. This process is linked with reflections on appropriate teaching methodologies. In the History Department of the University of Coimbra, professors are required annually to define learning outcomes and identify generic competences drawn from a predetermined list. The course descriptions containing learning outcomes ( resultados) are available on the web ( http://www.uc.pt/historia/ch/ecad112.html).

Professor Estela Pereira, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Universidade de Aveiro, Departamento de Fisica, Campus Universitario de Santiago, P-3810 Aveiro. Portugal. esper@fis.ua.pt Professor Joaquim Ramos de Carvalho, ECTS/DE Counsellor, Universidad de Coimbra, IHTI Faculdade de Letras, Largo da Porta Férrea. 3004-530 Coimbra, Portugal. joaquim@dei.uc.pt

Russian Federation

In the Russian Federation requirements for the knowledge and training of graduates are outlined, to indicate what they have to know and be able to do. These are to be found in the State standards developed for each programme. The State standards (in Russian) can be found at: http://www.edu.ru/db/portal/spe/archive.htm.

Gennady A Lukichev, Director, National Information Centre on Academic Recognition and Mobility (ENIC), Ministry of Education, Russia. glukichev@sci.pfu.edu.ru

Slovak Republic

Slovakia is currently using information sheets to describe course units. These require the specification of learning objectives and the methods used. This is part of a governmental decree that is binding for higher education institutions. There is a process underway to include detailed learning outcomes but this is still under development.

Slovenia

There is a small amount of activity regarding learning outcomes which are translated as 'aims ( cilji) of study programmes and 'the image of graduates' ( lik diplomanta) meaning what qualities a successful student acquires. In recent discussion papers the term 'learning outcomes' (uc_ni izidi and _tudijski rezultati) is becoming more common. The Slovenian Parliament recently approved a higher education law amendment (May 2004) where two provisions have direct links to learning outcomes. Article 33 seeks more precise definitions of the starting point for the preparations of study programmes. Article 34 calls for the definition of programme aims in terms of generic and subject-specific competencies. It is likely that the national higher education framework will include and elaborate learning outcomes. Some individual HEIs are already exploring learning outcomes following the 'Tuning' experience.

Professor Pavel Zgaga, Bologna expert, Slovenia. Pavel.zgaga@guest.arnes.si

Spain

In Spain, a new type of approach to higher education is emerging as a result of the Bologna reforms, which are being used as an opportunity for quality enhancement. Parallel to the issuing of the general framework for the Spanish higher education and the decrees relating to the implementation of the ECTS and the DS by the Ministry of Education, the Spanish Agency for Quality Assurance and Accreditation (ANECA) has launched a number of tenders for the development of new degree designs. These degree projects are for universities and aim at the 'joint degree' debate and proposals by groups of universities of specific degree programmes designed in accordance with the new coordinates of the European Higher Education Area. The new degree designs are asked to specify the learning outcomes and competences, consequently bringing the issue of the outcomes and competences to the forefront of the debate about the transformation of degrees. It is not clear yet what the long-term impact of these initiatives will be. There is however, a potential for a profound change from a predominantly content-teacher based education to a student-centred, competence-based system where the learning outcomes are at the core. Some universities (e.g. Deusto) already have detailed plans to innovate and transform themselves in the manner described above.

Dr Julia Gonzales, ECTS/DS Counsellor, Universidad de Deusto, E-48080, Bilbao, Spain. jmgonzal@rector.deusto.es

Sweden

Work begun in 2002, is progressing towards a stronger learning outcomes perspective, although learning outcomes have existed since 1993 in the Higher Education Act and Degree Ordinances that formulated objectives for specific degrees. The current ongoing review of the entire Swedish qualifications framework is conducted by the Ministry of Education and was triggered partly by the Bologna process. The work on the qualifications framework involves a learning outcomes approach, and the Ministry Review Report ( Högre utbildning i utveckling - Bolognaprocessen i svensk belysning, Ds 2004:2) was presented in February 2004; reactions from all stakeholders are being sought until June 2004. The 'degree review' report examines degree structures, levels, grades and credit points (including ECTS). It seeks to promote mobility, increase the transparency and clarity of Swedish higher education, and improve lifelong learning. The project proposes the development of new generic qualification descriptors that indicate the level of knowledge, understanding and competence to be obtained before the award of kandidatexamen, masterexamen and doktorsexamen. These three degrees would be the outcomes of each of the proposed degree levels which means that at the same time the qualification descriptors would function as the level descriptors for the three cycles. Currently, general academic degrees are described in terms of workload, level and profile. In Sweden there is a distinction between 'academic' and 'professional' degrees and the latter employ additional descriptions in terms of learning outcomes and skills. Currently, under the mandatory Swedish credit point system student workload is expressed in points where one week of full-time study equals one credit point (one year = 40 credit points). The review group proposes that ECTS is adopted for all levels as well as the ECTS grading scale. It is not clear if credits will be expressed in terms of learning outcomes or how this might impact on the approach to grading. Any new legislation is not expected to come into effect until July 2007.

Stefan Lofkvist, Swedish National Agency for Highert Education (Hogskoleverket), Box 7851. SE-10399. Sweden. Stefan.lofkvist@hsv.se Swedish Ministry of Education and Science Degree Review factsheet: http://www.education.ministry.se

Switzerland

In Switzerland, there is no systematic use of learning outcomes. However, the Rectors' Conference (CRUS) is trying to raise awareness about them especially in relation to the development project to create a 'national qualifications framework'. The recent Rectors' Conference Bologna recommendations ( http://wwwcrus.ch/deutsch/Lehre/Bologna/ ) acknowledged the future development of defined European generic qualification descriptors. The Swiss have not committed themselves to work in this area but universities are encouraged to reform using learning outcomes and note the work associated with the 'Dublin descriptors'. In addition, an informal group that includes quality assurance and Rectors Conference representatives is working on BA-MA descriptors. The link between the allocation of credits and learning outcomes is mentioned in the Federal level and university level Bologna-ECTS recommendations ( http://www.unil.ch/bologne see documents de référence).

Susanne Obermayer, Conference of the Swiss Universities and ECTS/DS counsellor, Bologna and ECTS Coordinator, Senneweg 2, CH-3012 Bern. Switzerland. Susanne.obermayer@crus.ch Antoinette Charon Wauters,ECTS/DS Counsellor, Head of International Relations, Université de Lausanne, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland. acw@rect.uni.ch

THE FORMER YUGOSLAV REPRBLIC OF MACEDONIA

Learning outcomes are not a feature in either of the two state universities in Macedonia (St Cyril and Methody in Skopje and St Kliment Ohridski in Bitola). However, the ' education and development strategy 2001-2010', designed by the Ministry of Education and Science, emphasises the development of the individual through the acquisition of general and professional knowledge. Education should provide critical, creative and innovative citizens with appropriate skills and competences in the context of lifelong learning. Educational reform in Macedonia includes the reconsideration of the role and mission of universities and the creation of education that relates to employment. Proposed legislation includes regulations on a qualifications framework and learning outcomes. In the South East European University learning outcomes are already being introduced.

Nadezda Uzelac, Head of the Macedonian Network for Higher Education Information (ENIC), Ministry of Education and Science, ul. Dimitrie Cuposki br. 9, MK-1000, Skopje/Macedonia. Nadezda.uzelac@mofk.gov.mk

Turkey

There is some activity associated with learning outcomes in Turkey. The Turkish ECTS counsellors' team is promoting the expression of learning outcomes in ECTS Information Packages and this is leading to much discussion on their nature, scope and role. The level of interest and activity varies between higher education institutions.

Professor Mehmet A Kisakürek, ECTS Counsellor, University of Ankara. Turkey. kkurek@education.ankara.edu.tr Dr Burak Arikan, ECTS Counsellor, Sabanci University, Orhanli, Tuzla, 34956. Istanbul. Turkey. barikan@sabanciuniv.ed.tr

United Kingdom

Learning outcomes have been used extensively throughout the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland which enjoy different educational structures) since the early 1990s. In 1997 the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (the Dearing Report) envisaged mass participation in higher education and the resultant need for clear information about courses and qualifications and 'greater explicitness and clarity about standards and levels of achievement required for different awards'. The qualifications framework for England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and the separate one for Scotland link to external reference points (benchmarks statements, levels, programme specifications, and qualification descriptors) that in turn link to learning outcomes. The SCQF employs 12 levels with associated level descriptors, which are themselves regarded as broad levels of outcome. The whole UK system represents a complex outcomes-based approach. Subject benchmark statements (available at http://www.qaa.ac.uk) set out expectations about standards of degrees and define what can be expected of a graduate in terms of the subject techniques, skills, intellectual demand and challenge. Programme specifications are written by institutions to clarify the knowledge, critical understanding, skills and other attributes a student will have on successful completion of a specific programme. Learning outcomes are employed in different ways at different levels (institutional, regional and national) within the education systems. Most HEIs express their qualifications / programmes of study and their individual modules in terms of learning outcomes. Thus curricula are outcomes-focused in order to improve the design, teaching, learning and effectiveness of the student experience. HEIs are autonomous and responsible for their own internal systems for maintaining standards and quality. Their systems are audited by the UK Quality Assurance Agency (QAA). They monitor the effectiveness of their programmes and whether they achieve their intended learning outcomes. Learning outcomes therefore have direct links to standards, national mechanisms for quality assurance and the enhancement of teaching, learning and assessment. In addition, most UK institutions are credit based where credits are expressed in terms of 'notional time to achieve a specified learning outcome'. Further information on UK credit, credit frameworks and learning outcomes can be obtained from: http://www.scqf.org.uk/home.aspx, http://www.seec-office.org, and http://www.elwa.ac.uk.

Stephen Adam, ECTS/DS Counsellor, University of Westminster, 309 Regent Street, London WIB2UW. United Kingdom. adamss@wmin.ac.uk

Global Developments

It is not possible to provide a detailed picture of the global position regarding the use of learning outcomes in this small project. However, it is clear that activity outside Europe has been taking place notably in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the USA. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) provides a comprehensive, nationally consistent framework for all post-compulsory education and training, which was introduced in 1995. The AQF recognises that the schools sector, vocational education and training sector and higher education each have different industry and institutional linkages and connects them in a single coherent framework incorporating title and guidelines. The guidelines contain the main criteria for defining qualifications based on the general characteristics of education and training at each qualification level. These characteristics are expressed principally as learning outcomes (descriptors of learning outcomes or competencies to be achieved for a particular qualification). Since 1993, the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) has developed its credit-based National Qualifications Framework (NQF), which is designed to provide nationally recognised, consistent standards and qualifications together with recognition and credit (measured in terms of notional learning hours to achieve the stated outcomes) for all learning of knowledge and skills. It has 10 levels that do not equate to years of learning. The level descriptors are described in terms of three categories: process, learning demand and responsibility. The NQF is an outcomes-based system and the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (the Register) lists all approved programmes and includes outcome statements that describe the nature of what a holder should achieve and what the ' qualification represents in terms of the application of knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes'. The USA is the originator of the learning outcomes approaches and its educational systems present a complex decentralised picture. Not all institutions express their modules and units in terms of learning outcomes but they are very widely used. According to the Council of Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), the public, federal government, higher education community and policy makers and students increasingly seek 'learning outcomes' information as an integral part of making judgements about the quality of accredited institutions and programmes. Learning outcomes are becoming increasingly important in the accreditation process and ' evidence of learning outcomes is becoming the principle gauge of higher education's effectiveness'. In the USA, learning outcomes are commonly linked to module and programme assessment and standards - levels of attainment.

Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). http://www.aqf.edu.au New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/framework/ Council of Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) http://www.chea.org