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REVIEW OF GREEN BELT POLICY IN SCOTLAND

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH

1.1 This Report provides a review of Green Belt policy in Scotland, based on a research project carried out for the Scottish Executive Development Department. The research was of relatively short duration (September 2003-March 2004) but provided an opportunity for a concentrated look at the concept, its origins and current and future relevance, as well as at actual practice and performance in different parts of Scotland. The work builds on both academic and professional literature, and on stakeholder and practitioner experience, as well as data on the current operation of Green Belt policy, but also draws in experience and approaches from other countries. The main aim is to explore Green Belt's fitness for purpose in 21 ^st century Scotland, and to put forward some coherent options for future policy.

1.2 The research has been undertaken by a multi-disciplinary team from one of Scotland's leading centres of education and research in planning and urban studies, assisted by consultants with active practical experience in Scottish planning. The team has extensive recent experience of research and policy reviews in related areas including the role of cities and regions, planning and housing, the planning system, planning and nature conservation, all of which has informed this project. The project has also benefited from active involvement of stakeholders, through an Advisory Group, groups convened in particular sectors, interviews and case studies, as well as a special workshop on policy options held in January 2004.

1.3 This introductory chapter provides a brief overview of the issues raised by the Research Brief, before outlining the different elements of the study and providing a guide to the rest of the report.

ORIGINS AND DRIVERS OF REVIEW

Introduction and Background

1.4 What are the origins and drivers of this review? The starting point is the policy context, which in Scotland focuses on the last official guidance on Green Belts contained in SDD Circular 24/85. That nearly two decades have passed since that document, a period which has seen many changes in the economy and in urban and development patterns, as well as in other related areas of policy, is indicative that this important aspect of planning policy may be ripe for review.

1.5 The brief summarises the context in the following way:

Green belt policy was originally seen as a policy instrument to direct and control the growth of the largest cities and prevent coalescence, provide countryside for recreational purposes and protect the landscape setting of settlements. It could be argued that there is now a wider range of policy objectives behind their designation, including support for urban regeneration and sustainable development. There are also varying opinions on the suitability of certain land uses in designated green belts...(Research Specification, para. 3)

...green belts have received support from many quarters,.....But there is an alternative view that green belts are too blunt a tool for the effective management of urban change...The use of the term 'belt' may also suggest a predetermined outcome. (para 4)

Since the policy came into force, the context has changed considerably. In certain areas, achieving a balance between settlement containment and growth in the long term is ever more challenging,.... But the issues vary between areas. (para 5)

Many local communities see green belts as inviolate for all time, but the need for development land and sustainable development patterns can potentially conflict with green belt policy....The effect of green belt boundaries may be to force development to leap-frog the green belt.... Alternatively it may increase the pressure to develop areas of open space within the existing built up areas. (para 6)

Market pressures on green belt land on the urban edge can affect the viability of agricultural land, discourage investment in management or innovative uses and result in derelict or poor quality land. However, supporting the management of green belt land should be an important element of strategic settlement strategy, in providing a high quality environment. (para 7)

1.6 Our own previous research on 'planning and housing' (School of Planning & Housing 2001) and 'ESRC Cities: Competitiveness and Cohesion' projects raised issues about planning to accommodate higher levels of growth, about relating housing to economic development, and about supporting environmentally sustainable transport strategies. It is clear that there are some changed circumstances since the mid-1980s, with greater growth pressures than previously anticipated in Edinburgh and some other cities/towns, and the role of cities in driving that growth is receiving greater recognition (Scottish Executive 2003). There is a changing spatial configuration of development, with a rapid growth of out-of-town or edge city business locations, which pose a particular challenge to planning at the urban fringe. There is renewed interest (from the EU downwards) in concepts of 'spatial planning', and these can be allied to the welcome revival of interest in strategic planning for city regions (Scottish Executive 2002). The proposed new arrangements for strategic planning envisage a longer timeframe and the possibility of phasing development within an 'action plan', which could have implications for the role of Green Belt and other land designations.

1.7 Sustainable development has become more formally embedded in a range of policies, including planning, but some established trends pose obvious challenges to this (e.g. longer car commuting). The INTERREG projects and follow-up work on the theme of 'Place Identity' (Hague & Jenkins 2004) also question whether traditional Green Belt necessarily equates with sustainability. Social and Environmental Justice concepts have also come more on to the planning agenda, and these raise questions about Green Belt policies' equity and social impact, some of which have a long pedigree (Hall et al 1973).

1.8 The nature of and prospects for agriculture have changed fundamentally since the 1980s, with a move away from protection of the countryside for this purpose towards the promotion of a diversified rural economy. Urban regeneration remains a priority, but we have moved well beyond the phase of trying to kick-start the concept of urban living or brownfield redevelopment. There are examples, particularly from southern England, of local authority plans challenging some fundamentals of the traditional Green Belt model (e.g. Cambridge). Current policy concerns about housing supply in southern England being explored by the Barker Review also pose serious questions about the role and impact of Green Belts.

1.9 The Brief acknowledges that Green Belts meet a range of objectives and that their role and function have varied over time and location (para's 3, 10; 11.1). Despite the almost iconic status of Green Belts as the best-known of all planning policies, it is sometimes alleged that there is considerable public misunderstanding of green belts (RTPI 2000, 2002). It is therefore certainly important to explore what this means in practice across Scotland today, as well as to consider some wider alternative means to meet the fundamental objectives.

1.10 The aim of the study, as identified in the Research Brief (para 9)

is to examine the current and future application of the green belt policy and its role in contributing to a sustainable settlement pattern and high quality environment in the long term. It should consider the continuing relevance of green belt policy and how it might develop to accommodate a changing context.

How fundamental a review?

1.11 The tight time and resource constraints set for this project did not allow for the generation of exhaustive new evidence on all key issues. It was therefore important to focus on what was feasible as well as what would be most useful for policy debate and development. An example would be the nature of the impact of green belts (or alternatives) on travel patterns or property markets. Ideally these would be subject to detailed quantitative modelling for the specific Scottish contexts, but clearly such primary research would have been beyond the scope of this project. However, we hoped to draw on existing research literature, studies and expert opinion to make some general inferences about the scale and direction of such effects. For the same reason, some other elements of the work have been pitched at minimum scale, for example the examination of international experience and the analysis of planning applications and decisions.

1.12 How radical should this review be? Some would doubtless argue for a radical re-think, and point out that the recent literature provides quite a lot of intellectual support for more significant, even radical changes ( see Chapter 2). Equally, it would have been possible to interpret the wording of the Brief as favouring a more conservative, incremental approach to reform. Our view was that there would be no point in undertaking this review if all of the arguments and options were not at least squarely considered and evaluated. 'What mechanisms offer the best way of meeting key current and future objectives?' is the central question. Like other institutions and policies, Green Belts may need to be 'modernised' but one cannot ignore the strong community and political support for the concept.

1.13 We suggested that the research should exemplify a number of options in building up to recommendations, although it would be helpful if these are packaged together in a coherent way. This point is developed later in this introduction, but mainly in Chapter 7.

KEY ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES

1.14 We believed it was important to provide a clear structure to the issues raised by the Brief. To this end we suggested in the Proposal that there were three main aspects to 'the Green Belt question'. In applying this framework to the initial scan of planning documents we found it helpful to modify this to a four-fold framework (numbers in parentheses cross-refer to issues identified in para. 11 of Brief).

• Function: the basic aims and purposes of green belts, and their consistency with national policy guidance (11.1-2); changes in aims over time, and any continuing concerns about conflicts with other aims (11.8).
• Urban form: the optimal shape of green belt-type zoning, particularly the debate over belts vs wedges (11.7), the precise definition of boundaries (RTPI 2002), and how this impacts on sustainability, particularly travel patterns and ecology/biodiversity (11.6), as well as more general effectiveness in relation to landscape quality and townscape setting.
• Nature of regime: the concept of a 'permanent'/inviolable designation versus a currency for the plan-period only (and how long this should be) (RTPI 2000, 2002); .); process of review and change in designation, and nature & strength of criteria to be applied (11.8); the legal basis and local discretion(11.2); blanket restriction of 'inappropriate development' versus a more flexible/positive development control stance (11.2-.3); single vs multiple/overlapping designations (11.4), the role of white land, and possible alternative designations (e.g. for high amenity economic development) (11.10); site-specific boundaries, treatment of insets/villages/other former urban uses (11.2-3
• Land management in the urban fringe (11.5): typical edge city uses/pressures and the impact of blight/hope value; recreation, access and landscape enhancement; paying for improvements and its relationship with the planning regime; implications of rural economic diversification (11.3); institutional arrangements including voluntary and collaborative agencies.

1.15 We believed this research needed to address all of these, partly because they are to a degree interdependent. The Brief implied a strong emphasis on the third of these three issues, the 'nature of the regime', perhaps because this is primarily what national planning policy has to address. The particular urban form options which are most appropriate are arguably issues to be addressed within particular city-region structure/strategic plans. Issues under the fourth heading go beyond planning but are quite constrained by the planning regime. It can also be argued that these have been the 'cinderella' of Green Belt policy.

1.16 This project aimed to bring together what is known from existing research and other literature, as discussed further below. There were some areas, however, where the evidence was not clear-cut, and generally some questions are much more researched than others.

1.17 It could also be questioned how stringently the policy has actually been applied in practice, particularly in relation to economic development opportunities (Bramley & Kirk forthcoming), but this was an area where the research could yield evidence directly. In relation to most of the above issues, we had to be reliant mainly upon the literature review, some second-hand reference to modelling results, and the experience of practitioners with particular local examples and studies to offer.

1.18 In moving from understanding, argument and evidence towards policy recommendations, it is also necessary to have regard to practical realism and robustness (11.9). Green Belt issues can be politically sensitive in some places. There are big differences in pressures and issues between different sub-regions (11.1). Where demand pressures are high, there are ever-present dangers of speculation, 'hope value', and incentives to manipulate the planning system; the regime needs careful design to minimise these dangers. Where pressures are low, the risk may be of environmental capital being squandered for short-term economic development prospects. A critical view might characterise the green belt as combination of dumping ground and strategic land reserve. The planning system faces problems of delay in the delivery of up-to-date development plans and proposed mechanisms should not add to these difficulties.

1.19 We believed it would be helpful to set out some broad options for change, which should address each of main issues above. The following are illustrative examples

• Reaffirmation of original policy with the addition of long-term land management measures.
• Tie green belts to strategic planning, implying a 15-20 year horizon, reviewable alongside plans, but relatively clear/unambiguous within this timeframe; continuance (separately) of some form of land zoning to accommodate future growth, but merging of informal local policies with official Green Belts; clarify criteria for review; medium term land management measures.
• Within a strategic planning context, encourage rethinking of boundaries, with a presumption towards wedges/fingers/corridors vs belts per se; plus making more topographical and functional sense of boundaries on the ground; stronger presumption of access, amenity, recreation, given proximity to urban demand; more management and resources for that.
• Scrap green belts, but rely on and possibly extend other potentially overlapping designations (e.g. areas of high landscape value, countryside recreation or nature conservation areas ); this may involve the suggested creation of new designations, e.g. for high amenity development zones or for rural development zones, with criterion-based policies for these.

1.20 Obviously such policy packages would need to be spelled out and assessed in detail. We use the four-fold framework identified above (function, urban form, regime, land management) and break this down into specific components. In the light of the evidence brought forward about all of these specific elements, we evaluate them individually in Chapter 7 and then go on to put forward policy packages which combine these in different ways.

RESEARCH METHOD

Stages and Elements

1.21 We suggested that the research be organised into three temporal phases, as set out below (and cross-referred to relevant paragraphs in Brief).

Stage 1

1. Initial literature review; this is relevant to all aspects (but esp 12.2, 12.4)
2. Obtain and review of current development plans across the whole of Scotland to identify the range of policy interpretations (12.1-12.2)
3. Selection of c.6 case studies from b) (basis for 12.3)
4. Inception report and position paper prepared, based on the above
5. Agree scope of remaining work

Stage 2

1. Key actor interviews in case study areas; (12.3)
2. Interview other key national stakeholders including policymakers, development industry, professions and consultants (12.5)
3. Analysis of planning applications, decisions & appeals in case study areas,
4. Extend literature review, particularly internationally (12.4).
5. Contact key informants in selected countries to advise on policies, experience and research. We regard international experience as a valuable source of ideas and experience relating to different ways of tackling these issues, and propose to look at both North American and European experience, as outlined in Section 7 (12.4)

Stage 3

1. Draft issues and options paper (12.4).
2. Hold a workshop with stakeholders (on 23 January 2004), to air a) above and obtain initial views on options (12.5).
3. Draft this final report (as per para 16). and 'Research Findings'.

Choice and Conduct of Case Studies

1.22 The Research Proposal envisaged looking at a number of case study areas (up to six), based on part or all of a number of the areas identified as having Green Belts in the past, present or future. Research in the Case Studies would entail two main elements, Key Actor Interviews and Analysis of Planning Applications/Decisions.

1.23 Key actor interviews in case study areas; these would amplify reasoning behind policy/practice variation, and throw up evidence and examples of policy conflicts, impacts and implementation difficulties; this would include detailed examination of cases of green belt boundary reviews/changes. These requirements imply selecting cases at different ends of the spectrum of policy characteristics, and cases where there were recent or proposed changes to examine.

1.24 The analysis of planning applications, decisions & appeals in the case study areas would be undertaken using a classification scheme, and would be contextualised with some data about market/growth pressures. This would involve data mainly from local authorities. The aim here would be to shed light on questions about the manifestations of development pressure within and around Green Belts and about the detailed application of policies in practice. These requirements implied selecting established Green Belts rather than new ones, although changes before and after a recent change of policy or boundary could be examined. In terms of contextual variables, it was argued that the key one would be differences in the economic pressure of demand.

1.25 We needed to complete the Plan Scan to apply these criteria. In addition, the comments of the Advisory Group were be welcomed. In the light of these criteria and comments, the chosen set of Case Studies were:

Aberdeen & Aberdeenshire

Edinburgh City
Midlothian

Dundee & Angus (former GB).

Glasgow City
East Dunbartonshire
North Lanarkshire

In effect, these may be regarded as four case studies of city-regions, although in all cases more than one Unitary Authority is involved.

1.26 For the key actor interviews, we interviewed planning officers in the local authorities involved, including where appropriate those involved in Structure Plan, Local Plan and Development Control. Our budget would only permit interviewing a very limited number of other key actors, but where possible these included local/regional representatives of the housebuilding industry, of business, or environmental and amenity groups. Some of these interests were effectively covered via 'national key actor interviews', where these actors could be expected to know about cases in different areas.

1.27 The Case studies, both in terms of general area characteristics and in terms of particular developments, might be enhanced by the use of mapping and possibly aerial photography and pictures of particular developments. We attempted to obtain digitised maps from the local planning authorities, but recognise the problems where boundaries have not been defined. This also affects our ability to calculate areas.

Analysis of Development Applications

1.28 For the analysis of planning decisions, it was a bit unclear at the outset how practicable this would be and hence how long a time period and comprehensive a coverage could be achieved. Data are held on different systems and formats with different levels of detail, and it was not clear how far we could rely on electronic data rather than having to local at files manually. In practice, we have relied in the end mainly on summary data derived from development control progress and monitoring systems. However, even this proved to be quite difficult and time-consuming and the data for some areas has only become available at the very end of the project. In one case (Edinburgh) it was suggested that an examination of Local Plan objections would also be informative, but this was particularly labour-intensive and it was decided not to replicate this elsewhere. In some other cases data could only be obtained for a couple of recent years, and this limits the size of samples.

1.29 Land Use Change Statistics do not exist in Scotland and so it is not possible to obtain consistent data on development volumes and types of the kind which can be produced for English Green Belts from this source.

Other Elements of the Research

National Key Actor Interviews

1.30 The proposal included provision to interview other key national stakeholders including policymakers, development industry, professions and consultants. The views of the Executive and the Advisory Group were sought on which key agencies and individuals are to cover here. As noted above, some of these key actors would have knowledge and views about a range of local situations. A topic guide for these interviews was developed, based on the Key Themes identified above and informed by the emerging issues from the literature review and scan of planning documents ( see Appendix 5).

International Perspectives

1.31 The problems posed by urban spread are evident in all countries, and have been given extra currency by the concern for energy-efficient settlement structures that can contribute towards more sustainable development patterns and more effective management of open space. We aimed to draw on our extensive international experience and contacts to research cutting-edge practice in some countries with particular relevance to the wider project. These would be:

• The Pacific states of the USA and Canada, where the approach to meet the challenges of urban spread is encapsulated in the phrase "smart growth". This usually amounts to a mix of fixing urban growth boundaries, (often through some form of mediation between between developers, environmental interests and local residents), and positive management of environmental quality in the fringe areas (Knaap 2001).
• Europe - where the themes of 'compact cities', 'new urban-rural relationships' and 'wise management of the natural heritage' in the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) have inspired further research through the European Spatial Planning Observatory Network (ESPON) and practice through INTERREG. Within Europe we aimed to address a range of different approaches, such as a) Germany, where there is strong integration of positive environmental planning with landscape planning; b) Netherlands - where there has been a long tradition of effective urban containment based on land use criteria, but where there is now a critique of such approaches and a search for more positive design interventions around urban edges; c) Sweden/Denmark, where the corridor-based urban growth has been been seen as a sustainable form (Stockholm, for example is one of UN Habitat's good practice examples). In practice we also received communications from some other European countries.

1.32 Our experience in undertaking an international review of mediation in plan-making for the ODPM earlier in 2003 demonstrated that it would be possible to use our extensive network of practitioner contacts to generate responses through an e-mail based questionnaire and follow-up telephone interviews. We proposed to use these methods to address many of the questions in Section 11 of the Specification for Research, in particular those concerning appropriate and non-conforming land uses (11.3), good management approaches (11.5), the relation between policies and sustainable settlement / high quality environment (11.6), alternative approaches (11.7), and practical concerns (11.9). In this latter respect we have been particularly impressed with the way that participatory planning and mediation is used in much of the USA and Canada to try to seek win-win situations and avoid adversarial solutions, and we would wish to reflect some of this in discussion of how policy in Scotland could be adjusted or strengthened.

1.33 In practice we obtained structured reports from informants in half-a-dozen European countries and a couple of reports from North America.

GUIDE TO THE REPORT

1.34 Chapter 2 presents the literature review, which we have attempted to structure loosely around our four key themes. This includes a review of policy developments in England as well as Scotland, including major official research reports commissioned in England, as well as a wider academic literature.

1.35 Chapter 3 provides a brief summary of the key issues emerging from the Scan of Development Plans across all of the areas in Scotland which have or had Green Belts.

1.36 Chapter 4 summarises the views of Stakeholders, as derived from interviews, some group consultations, the Advisory Group and the Workshop held at the Victoria Quay on 23 January.

1.37 Chapter 5 presents the main case studies, grouped into four city-regions as noted above. These reports vary somewhat in length and detail, and bring out different issues and perspectives. The summarised results of the analyses of planning applications and decisions which we have been able to undertake are included within these case study reports.

1.38 Chapter 6 provides an integrated review of the findings from the International Investigation of approaches and perspectives.

1.39 Chapter 7 brings all the findings together to evaluate the different elements of policy, and then puts forward some packages of options for future policy.

1.40 Chapter 8 provides a concise summary of the conclusions and recommendations from the research.

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