The Scottish Government

This section covers the sectors normally referred to in Scotland as further education and higher education.

Educational provision in Scotland for pupils at the end of their secondary school career has for many years meant either some form of vocational training or more advanced study in a college or university. Over the years the opportunities available for those leaving school at the statutory leaving age and for those leaving school after completing a full secondary course, but without qualifications to enter a higher education institution, have been in vocational training and further education. For a minority there was the opportunity of entry to university and to the professions. This situation has changed considerably in recent years.

6.1.1 Vocational Training and Further Education

There have been vocational training institutions of one kind or another in Scotland for well over 200 years, matching the development of industry. In the course of the 20th century the system of vocational education and training changed several times to reflect the needs of the world of work and to match changes in industrial and commercial practices. Such changes were brought about, for example, by new technology, by new educational thinking and by the aspirations of people seeking to acquire new skills or improve the ones they already possessed.

Vocational training developed in a number of different ways. At the beginning of the 20 ^th century the need for high level professional and vocational education was met by the foundation of so-called Central Institutions. These institutions, over the years, in response to a demand by a number of professions for degree-level qualifications, came to offer degree-level courses. Alongside these also grew up the Colleges of Education, which were designed to train teachers, although, as time passed, they branched out into the training of other professionals, for example in social work and youth work.

At another level further education developed to meet the training needs of industry. The 1960s in Scotland saw a considerable expansion of further education places in colleges that were part of the educational provision of local authorities. Forty-three of these further education colleges became incorporated (i.e. self-governing) as from 1 April 1993. More recently, in the 1980s, major changes in the organisation of courses and assessment took place as a result of the then SOED's 16+ Action Plan which set up a modular system of training. To oversee the new modular system the Scottish Vocational Education Council (SCOTVEC) was established, taking over and developing the work of the two previous Scottish examining bodies: SCOTEC for technical education and SCOTBEC for business education. On 1 April 1997 the Scottish Examination Board (SEB) and SCOTVEC merged to form the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) in preparation for the unified curricula now being implemented gradually since August 1999 in schools, further education colleges and training centres.

Vocational education and training is offered in further education colleges, by independent trainers and by employers in the workplace. The colleges offer a wide range of programmes from access level to professional level. The programmes are constructed from 'building blocks' of units and are designed to meet the specific needs of employers and other users. They include 'core skills' as well as suitable blends of theory and practice and can be designed to incorporate extensive periods of skills' development gained in college workshops and other specialist areas.

Sector Skills Councils (SSCs) form a UK-wide network of sectoral representative organisations which have replaced National Training Organisations (NTOs). SSCs are the recognised national strategic bodies responsible for identifying the skills, education and training needs of their sector and maintaining national occupational standards for jobs within it. Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQ) - and National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) in the rest of the UK - are based on these standards. SSCs are responsible for influencing policy and delivery of education and training, on behalf of their sector, to ensure that these needs are met. They are also responsible for gathering labour market information and intelligence and for workforce development planning. Those occupational areas that are not covered by a SSC will have their skills maintained by the Sector Skills Development Agency (SSDA), with input from the appropriate former NTO.

6.1.2 Universities and Higher Education

University education in Scotland has a long history. Four universities - St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh, known collectively as the 'four ancient Scottish universities' - were founded in the 15th and 16th centuries. Four further universities - Strathclyde, Heriot-Watt, Stirling and Dundee - were formally established as independent universities between 1964 and 1967 and four others - Napier, Paisley, Robert Gordon and Glasgow Caledonian - were granted the title of university in 1992, with a fifth, the University of Abertay, Dundee, being added during 1994.

Most of the remaining higher education institutions, which all offer courses at degree level, although not themselves universities, were formerly Central Institutions. These institutions tend to specialise in particular areas, for example in teacher education; art and architecture; music and drama; health care; food; tourism. Bell College of Technology, formerly a college of further education, and the UHI Millennium Institute, recently established to provide higher education across the Highlands and Islands and Perthshire, offer a broad range of vocationally orientated subjects at all levels. Higher education is also provided in further education colleges.

Participation rates in higher education have increased steadily in recent years. The UK Government's forecast that well over 40% of young Scots would enter higher education courses by the turn of the century has been realised and the figure stands now at almost 50%. Because growth in numbers entering higher education has been more rapid than the Government anticipated, they are now being held steady during a period of consolidation; but the UK Government and the Scottish Parliament remain committed to the efficient and continuing expansion of higher education in the longer term.

6.1.3 Organisations Providing Information and Advice

learndirect scotland, Careers Scotland and Future Skills Scotland were set up to provide learners with a comprehensive range of information and advice to enable them to make informed decisions about their future. learndirect scotland provides information on learning opportunities available throughout Scotland from bite-sized through to full-time vocational courses, whilst Careers Scotland provides in-depth guidance on possible future careers and skills required. Both of these organisations provide a seamless source of advice to learners. Future Skills Scotland is a unit supported by the Enterprise Networks which assesses future skills needs in the ever changing economic climate.

- Higher Education Review. The Higher Education Review Phase 2: A Framework for Higher Education in Scotland was published in March 2003. The framework sets out the Scottish Executive's national priorities for the sector for the next decade. It is the result of an 18-month review based on extensive consultation and discussion, and marks the beginning of a new partnership between the higher education sector and the Executive.

- Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework. The SCQF is now being progressed under the partnership of the Scottish Executive, the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA), the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) and Universities Scotland. The framework currently incorporates all the mainstream Scottish qualifications from Access level to Doctorate level. This includes both academic and vocational qualifications provided in schools, further education higher education, and the workplace.

Future SCQF developments will include incorporating qualifications of professional bodies and other awarding bodies operating in Scotland into the framework. Consideration will also be given to how flexible forms of learning (community education, voluntary sector and learndirect scotland learning) can be incorporated.

- Support for Students. In May 2003 the Scottish Executive announced its intention to introduce financial support for all 16 to 19 year olds from low-income families, to allow them to continue their education. The Executive is already committed to rolling out national Education Maintenance Allowances to the whole of Scotland, up to 1500 per year maintenance for all eligible 16-19 year olds from low income families, beginning academic year 2004/05 and completed by 2007/08.

The Further and Higher Education (Scotland) Act 1992 made fundamental changes in the organisation of post-school education in Scotland.

Further education colleges, which had previously been the responsibility of the education authorities became 'incorporated' (i.e. self-governing) under the general supervision of the SEETLLD (then SOED).

The Act also created a separate Scottish Higher Education Funding Council (SHEFC), removing the dividing line which existed between the former Central Institutions and the universities in respect of their funding mechanisms and creating a distinctly Scottish body able to take major decisions affecting the future of higher education in Scotland. Five of the former Central Institutions met the criteria laid down for university status, raising the number of Scottish universities to thirteen. The Open University also operates in Scotland, making the total now fourteen. In addition, Queen Margaret College, another former Central Institution, became Queen Margaret University College in 1998. Bell College, Hamilton, and the UHI Millennium Institutes became higher education institutions in 2001.

From 1 July 1999, under powers provided in the 1992 Act, a Scottish Further Education Funding Council (SFEFC) came into operation, replacing the former FE Funding Unit of the SEETLLD (then SOEID). The new Council funds Scotland's 42 incorporated FE colleges, using finances made available to it by the Scottish Parliament. The Council works closely with the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council (SHEFC), because of the amount of higher education provided in FE colleges, and has the same Chief Executive.

The Scottish Executive Enterprise, Transport and Lifelong Learning Department (SEETLLD) emerged as the result of the Executive's decision in 1999 to separate pre-school and school education from post-school education, training and industry. The move also recognised the growing importance of lifelong learning to the economic well-being of Scotland.

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Further Education

By the Further and Higher Education (Scotland) Act 1992 further education in Scotland has the task of:

• preparing a person for a vocational qualification;
• preparing a person for SQA or English GCE qualifications;
• providing instruction for persons participating in a programme of learning who have learning difficulties;
• preparing a person for access to higher education;
• assisting persons whose first language is not English to achieve a level of competence in English language; and
• preparing a person for participation in any programme of learning.

Higher Education

In terms of the Further and Higher Education (Scotland) Act 1992, the higher education institutions provide sub-degree courses, first degree courses, courses for the education and training of teachers, courses of post-graduate studies at Masters and Doctorate levels and courses at a higher level in preparation for a qualification from a professional body. The higher education institutions are also expected to carry out research.

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The Scottish system of post-school education is best described under three headings: training, further education and higher education. These headings correspond to different kinds of organisation and a different structure of responsibility. There is, however, considerable overlap between training and further education and between further education and higher education.

Training

There is a range of Government funded national training programmes which are managed and delivered by Scottish Enterprise (SE) and Highlands and Islands Enterprise (HIE) through their networks of Local Enterprise Companies (LECs).

Skillseekers
All young people aged 16-17 are entitled, under the Youth Training Guarantee, to Skillseekers training. LECs also have discretion to fund 18-24 year olds. The main elements of Skillseekers are training leading to a recognised qualification up to SVQ Level III (SCQF 6), an individual training plan, and employer involvement. The programme has helped increase employer participation in training and 75% of Skillseekers participants are now employed while undertaking their training. Training provision for young people with additional support needs was recently redesigned and the new model, Get Ready for Work, was introduced in April 2002.

Modern Apprenticeships
Modern Apprenticeships were introduced in 1996 and offer 16-24 year olds paid employment combined with the opportunity to train at craft, technician and trainee management level. The training must lead to SVQ Level III or above and include core skills. Following removal of the upper age limit in March 2001, LECs have discretion to fund MAs for people over 25.

Training for Work
Training for Work (TfW) is a work related training programme targeted at individuals aged 25 and over who have been unemployed for six months or more. Early entry to TfW is available to those unemployed people who are particularly disadvantaged in the labour market. The programme aims to help people move into work by improving their work related skills through the provision of appropriate training and structured work activity in line with assessed needs. Training is delivered by private training providers, voluntary sector organisations, local authorities, further education colleges and employers. The aim is to provide a wide range of job focussed training opportunities linked to local labour market vacancies. Trainees can have employed or non- employed status on the programme. Non-employed trainees receive a training allowance equivalent to their benefit entitlement plus an additional 10 training premium. Employed status trainees receive a wage while in training. Customised training generally accounts for employed status in the programme.

Further Education

The main providers of further education in Scotland are the 46 further education colleges which offer a wide range of courses at non-advanced and advanced levels and which provide continuing education beyond school or preparation for further study. They all have the same constitution. However, they vary considerably in size and the range of courses which they offer. They cater for both full-time and part-time students, with part-time students in the majority. The courses are mainly vocational in nature and include both theoretical and practical work. However, these colleges also offer courses leading to awards recorded on the Scottish Qualifications Certificate (SQC) and advanced vocational courses, which are classed as higher education courses, leading to the award of a Higher National Certificate (HNC) or a Higher National Diploma (HND).

Higher Education

There are 21 higher education institutions in Scotland, comprising 14 universities (including the Open University) and 7 other institutions. They are funded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council (SHEFC), except for the Scottish Agricultural College, which is funded by the Scottish Executive Environment & Rural Affairs Department (SEERAD). Courses at higher education level (mainly HNC, HND or both, but also including degree provision) are also offered by all the further education colleges and there are close links between the FE and HE sectors.

Former higher education institutions which were specialist colleges providing pre-service and in-service courses for the training of teachers and, in some cases, a range of courses in social work, community education and leisure have now merged with the Universities of Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Paisley and Strathclyde. Two other colleges, Edinburgh College of Art and Glasgow School of Art, specialise in fine art, art and design, and architecture. Other specialist institutions are Queen Margaret University College, Edinburgh, specialising mainly in health care, food, hospitality and tourism studies and drama; and the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD), Glasgow.

Bell College of Technology and the UHI Millennium Institutes offer a range of vocationally oriented subjects at HNC, HND, first degree and post-graduate levels. The Scottish Agricultural College has its administrative headquarters in Edinburgh and campuses in Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Ayr, where it provides courses in agricultural sciences and related disciplines. It offers full-time, part-time and short courses at HNC, HND, degree and post-graduate levels.

Queen Margaret University College and the RSAMD have the power to award their own degrees (other than research degrees, in the case of the latter). The other higher education institutions have validation arrangements with a university or degree-awarding body, by which the university approves the courses and assessment arrangements and awards its degree to the successful candidates.

The Principals of the Scottish universities and higher education institutions meet to discuss matters of common interest and common policies in the body known as Universities Scotland.

Geographical Accessibility in Tertiary Education

Further education colleges are mainly situated in areas where there is a high concentration of population but there are some colleges which provide for more sparsely populated areas and over 90% of the population live within 30 minutes driving time of a college. In addition, all colleges now provide some form of outreach facility to make learning opportunities more accessible. To provide for students in areas more remote from a college, there have been considerable advances in the use of distance learning techniques. The rural colleges also receive recognition of their location in additions to their recurrent grant allocations.

Most of Scotland's higher education institutions are in or very near to the major cities - Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh and Glasgow - although the University of St Andrews is situated in the town of St Andrews, the traditional home of golf, in Fife and the University of Stirling is located just outside the historic town of Stirling. In the Highlands and Islands the University of the Highlands and Islands (UHI) Millennium Institute offers higher education at all levels across an area stretching from the Shetland Isles to Perthshire, via contractual arrangements with locally based colleges of further education and other non-SHEFC-funded institutions. In the Scottish Borders the Heriot-Watt University offers higher education from its campus in Galashiels, which enjoys a leading position in textile design and textile technology. In Dumfries and Galloway, in the south west, the Universities of Glasgow and Paisley, the Open University, Bell College and Dumfries and Galloway College have come together to form the pioneering multi-institution Crichton Campus.

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Further Education

FE colleges have a very wide range of students. They admit to their courses students who have just left school at age 16, students who have left school at 17 or 18, with and without formal certification, and also a large and increasing number of older students. Admission requirements are related to courses, but mature applicants' experience and previous learning can be considered. Non-advanced courses do not normally have formal entry qualifications. Advanced courses normally require candidates to hold formal qualifications, for example passes in the Scottish Qualifications Certificate of Education (SQC) (or former Scottish Certificate of Education) or equivalent qualifications.

Higher Education

The usual entry requirement for higher education courses is a group of A-C awards in the National Qualifications Higher or Advanced Higher level examinations set by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA), or qualifications deemed by an HE institution to be equivalent to these. For many HE courses entry is conditional on the candidate holding awards at specified levels. Awards in the English General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and GCE Advanced Level (or the equivalent) are also accepted. For some HE courses, particularly HNC and HND courses, a group of appropriate National Certificate (NC) awards may be acceptable. Candidates with certain qualifications, such as HNC and HND, can gain entry to a few degree courses at levels beyond year one.

Applications from outside Scotland to pursue a higher education course are considered individually to ascertain the acceptability of the entry qualifications proposed.

Most applications for entry to higher education institutions in Scotland are processed through the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS), which distributes them to the individual institutions and enables candidates to apply to several institutions on one form. For some courses, for example in art and design and in social work, there are other arrangements which are detailed in the Entrance Guide to Higher Education in Scotland.

The higher education institutions welcome applications from 'adult' students (defined as applicants over the age of 25) as well as from school leavers. This has led to the development of a range of special courses specifically designed to prepare adults both for higher education in general and for particular courses. Such "access" courses include a range of SQA units or courses, successful completion of which may lead to an SQA award. Many "access" courses carry a guarantee of a place in higher education on successful completion.

(Note: the word "access" as used in this context of facilitating entry to higher education does not refer to the level of National Qualifications called Access.)

See sections 2.8 and 6.8 for description of funding arrangements.

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Further Education

Since autumn 2000, tuition fees have been abolished for Scottish domiciled students and EU students who undertake full-time non-advanced courses of further education. In addition, some part-time students in receipt of state benefits may also be eligible to have their fees waived. The FE colleges can provide financial assistance for students on further education courses, which, subject to means testing, may provide support towards maintenance costs, travel and study expenses. Local education authorities also have discretionary powers to offer assistance to individuals ordinarily resident in their areas, who are not attending one of the 46 incorporated colleges or who are attending a college outwith Scotland.

Education Maintenance Allowances have been piloted since 1999 with the aim of increasing the number of young people from low-income households remaining in full-time education at school or further education college. The pilots now cover 45 local authorities in the UK, including East Ayrshire in Scotland, and will run over three years.

Individual Learning Accounts (ILA), which became available in Scotland from September 2000, have helped some 110,000 people to invest in their own learning; they had to be 18 or over and not in full-time higher education or in receipt of public funding for the learning in question. Members of the scheme were eligible for discounts of 20% or 80% up to maxima of 100 and 200 respectively. The ILA scheme was brought to a close, however, in December 2001. Consideration is now being given to what future arrangements might be put in place to support individual learning.

Higher Education

The Student Awards Agency for Scotland (SAAS) has responsibility for providing assistance (through the Students' Allowances Scheme) to students undertaking full-time and some part-time higher education courses in universities or further education colleges. Eligible full-time Scottish-domiciled students following HNC, HND and degree level courses at a Scottish institution are entitled to free tuition and living costs support through partly means-tested loans (Student Loan Scheme). Scottish-domiciled students studying elsewhere in the UK may have to contribute to the cost of their tuition fees. Some students will also be eligible to receive extra help through non-repayable supplementary grants.

From session 2001-2002 the Scottish Executive introduced a Young Students' Bursary Scheme and a Mature Students' Bursary Fund. Eligible students attending Scottish institutions can apply for these additional funds. There is also a loan available to part-time students studying at least 50% of a full-time course either through attendance at the institution or by distance learning. EU students studying eligible courses at a Scottish institution may also be entitled to free tuition fees.

Universities normally operate 3 x 10-week terms, starting in the autumn (a situation which is at the moment undergoing some change), but other post-school institutions offering further and higher education have an academic year closer in length and division to the school year.

Further Education Colleges

The typical further education college offers a wide range of mainly vocational courses at non-advanced and advanced levels. Most courses are composed of units (listed in the SQA catalogue) tailored to the needs of particular employment sectors or to individual student needs. Colleges can construct programmes to suit the needs of specific industries (for example, the building industry or the semi-conductor industry) or the particular needs of local employers.

The needs of industry and students are met by the provision of a number of different types of course:

• vocational and general education for post-16 students and trainees;
• link courses for school pupils;
• industrial pre-employment training serving specific employer needs or the requirements of the Local Enterprise Companies;
• off-the-job training for employees, including those on training schemes such as Skillseekers; and
• vocational and non-vocational evening classes.

Building on well-established links with industry, further education colleges have in recent years increased considerably their provision of updating and re-training courses for local industries.

The majority of courses lead to the SQA National Certificate or a Scottish Group Award, formerly a General Scottish Vocational Qualification (GSVQ). Advanced level courses offered by the further education colleges lead to the award of Higher National Certificates and Diplomas (HNC and HND) and, in some colleges, to degrees. HNCs and HNDs are long-established vocational qualifications covering a diverse and growing range of employment sectors. Between 1995 and 1998 extensive consultations with employers and colleges on new design rules for Higher National Qualifications were carried out. As a result of these consultations, the following new design rules were introduced in 1998:

Programmes of study in FE colleges include:

• programmes leading to Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQ); some of these qualifications have joint certification by the SQA and another awarding body such as City and Guilds or a professional body;
• programmes leading to national awards which prepare students for broad employment opportunities, including progression to further or higher education; these may also include credits towards Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQ); and
• programmes devised to suit certain needs. These programmes may match particular industry or business needs, for example a programme designed in collaboration with a college for multi-disciplinary engineering technicians from a petro-chemical plant; or a re-training programme; or other programmes of employer-related training.

Universities and Higher Education Institutions

The subject areas offered by the Scottish higher education institutions include: Accountancy; Agriculture and Forestry; American Studies; Archaeology; Architecture; Art, Fine Art and Design; Biological Sciences; Building; Business/Management Studies; Chemical Sciences; Classics and Classical Civilisation; Computing/Information Studies; Consumer Studies; Dentistry; Divinity, Religious Studies and Theology; Drama Studies and Media Studies; Economics; Education and Teacher Education; Engineering; English; Environmental Studies/Health Studies; European Studies; Geography and Geology; Historical Studies; Hotel/Hospitality Management; Languages; Law and Legal Studies; Librarianship; Linguistics; Marine Sciences; Mathematics; Medicine; Medicine-related subjects; Middle Eastern Studies; Music; Nursing and Midwifery; Pharmacy; Philosophy; Physical Sciences; Politics and International Relations; Printing and Publishing; Psychology; Public Policy and Administration; Science Studies; Scottish Studies; Slavonic and East European Studies; Sociology, Social Anthropology, Social Policy and Social Work; Sports Studies, Recreation and Leisure; Statistics; Surveying and Planning; Textiles; and Veterinary Medicine.

Some of these subject areas can only be studied in a very small number of institutions. Linguistics, for example, can only be studied at the University of Edinburgh, and Slavonic Studies only at the University of Glasgow; Pharmacy and Librarianship are only offered by the Robert Gordon University and Strathclyde University, and Veterinary Medicine only by the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow. On the other hand 16 of the higher education institutions offer Business and Management Studies. Higher education institutions also vary in the number of subject areas which they offer. The Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow each offer 37 of the areas listed above, while the Universities of Dundee and Strathclyde each offer 34. At the other end of the scale a number of specialist institutions, such as Edinburgh College of Art, Glasgow School of Art and the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama, offer a much more limited number. All the institutions offer post-graduate facilities for study and research leading to higher degrees.

Further Education Colleges

The current provision in FE colleges derives still to a very great extent from a report issued in 1983 entitled 16-18s in Scotland: An Action Plan, although the reforms had been heralded by a number of earlier consultative papers dating back to 1977. The Action Plan, later re-titled the 16+ Action Plan, envisaged a system of vocational education which would do the following:

• provide for 16-18-year-olds in further education colleges, on the Youth Training scheme and in voluntary community education classes;
• rationalise both non-advanced and advanced further education provision and ensure that they related sensibly to each other;
• use a modular curriculum as the basis for this rationalisation; and
• develop the curriculum using up-to-date thinking on curriculum design and assessment.

The module or unit, as it developed within this Action Plan, is a self-contained or separately identified part of a course leading to a 'non-advanced' vocational qualification, for which a National Certificate (NC) or General Scottish Vocational Qualification (GSVQ) was previously awarded. It normally lasts 40 hours, including time for ongoing assessment and necessary re-teaching. The descriptor of each module specifies a level of entry, i.e. the level of knowledge and prior qualifications required before embarking on the module. A course is made up of a number of modules which are taken during a year. Apprentices released for one day a week, for example, to attend a further education college would be able to take 5 or 6 modules during a year. Full-time students would take 18-21 modules in a year. Since 1999, the GSVQs have been gradually replaced by Scottish Group Awards.

The SQA Catalogue of National Certificate modules (or National Qualifications units) contains details of over 4,000 units showing a classification of modular courses into the following 23 groups:

A: Business/Management/Office Studies
B: Sales, Marketing and Distribution
C: Information Technology and Information
D: Humanities (History/Archaeology/Religious Studies/Philosophy)
E: Politics/Economics/Law/Social Sciences
F: Area Studies/Cultural Studies/Languages/Literature
G: Education/Training/Teaching
H: Family Care/Personal Development/Personal Care and Appearance
J: Arts and Crafts
K: Authorship/Photography/Publishing/Media
L: Performing Arts
M: Sports, Games and Recreation
N: Catering/Food/Leisure Services/Tourism
P: Health Care/Medicine/Health and Safety
Q: Environment Protection/Energy/Cleansing/Security
R: Sciences and Mathematics
S: Agriculture, Horticulture and Animal Care
T: Construction and Property (Built Environment)
V: Services to Industry
W: Manufacturing/Production Work
X: Engineering
Y: Oil/Mining/Plastics/Chemicals
Z: Transport Services

These groups indicate the very wide range of curricula offered by the FE colleges.

Universities and Higher Education Institutions

In Scotland the normal pattern is for students studying for first degrees in the majority of subject areas to spend three academic years in attaining an Ordinary (i.e. General) degree or four years in attaining an Honours degree which involves greater specialisation. In some faculties, for example in medicine and law, courses are traditionally longer. The number of subjects studied and the time spent in lectures, tutorials and practical work, in laboratories or in the field, varies enormously from year to year within courses, from course to course within an institution and from institution to institution.

Section 6.10 indicates something of the wide range of subjects studied.

Further Education Colleges

Although lecturing and other classroom methods are still very much in use in the FE colleges, there has always been a tradition also of practical work in workshop, laboratory and training kitchen. The modular nature of a very large number of the courses offered and the clarification of assessment criteria have both influenced learning and teaching.

Colleges have also developed various forms of open and distance learning with the aim of providing greater flexibility and choice to students in terms of where learning takes place, its pace and duration. Materials for learners include paper-based packs, audio and videotapes, and computer-based packages. Increasingly, a number of colleges have been involved in making available forms of distance learning based on new technologies, such as teleconferencing, video-conferencing, on-line and networked learning. To improve access for learners, many colleges also offer courses at outreach or distributed learning centres.

In some subject areas, study in college or by some form of open or distance learning is often alternated with periods of work-based learning in the student's place of employment or on a work placement arranged by the college.

Special Assistance for Students

The Further and Higher Education (Scotland) Act 1992 requires further education colleges to have regard to the requirements of students with learning difficulties: by offering special courses; by using SQA modules devised for the purpose; and by providing aids to learning for those with particular disabilities.

Towards the end of 1992 the SOEID issued Circular FE13/92 giving guidance to college Boards of Management on their responsibilities for students with learning difficulties. The Circular dealt with the range of special needs. It emphasised the importance of partnership in planning between the college, the student and those with an interest in him or her, of progression to further stages, and of coherence and balance in the programme offered. It laid down guidance for the provision of learning support - that it should be flexible, involve co-operative teaching within the student's programme (not a separate programme), provide guidance, and recognise the individual needs of the student. It made recommendations about the management of provision of learning support. It dealt with the important questions of admission, initial assessment and the specifying of appropriate action; it also drew attention to problems of buildings and accommodation and the need for staff development and training. The Circular was based on the years of experience which some FE colleges had had in dealing with students with special needs and put together much existing good practice.

Patterns of provision vary from college to college, very often depending on local circumstances and on the area in which the college is located. Strong efforts are made in a number of colleges to cater for the socially excluded, the educationally disadvantaged, and ethnic minorities.

A high level committee, the Beattie Committee, reviewed post-school education and training for young people who experience barriers to participation in post-school learning and employment because of physical or learning disabilities, social or economic disadvantage or disaffection. In September 1999 the Committee published its report: Implementing Inclusiveness: Realising Potential, in which it recommended:

• the establishment of an 'Implementing Inclusiveness' network both at national and local levels;
• improvements in guidance and support arrangements during transition to post-school learning or employment;
• the development of 'inclusiveness' policies in FE colleges and by training providers; and
• the introduction of disability statements in FE colleges and improvements in accessibility and supply of equipment for young people with disabilities.

The Scottish Executive established a National Action Group (NAG) to implement action in response to the Beattie report.

Universities and Higher Education Institutions

Lectures, seminars, tutorial groups, project work and, in appropriate subjects, laboratory work and field work are the main teaching methods of most higher education institutions. In some institutions and in some subjects there has been considerable interest in the use of computers in learning and in the use of computer simulations in the teaching of science. In some institutions, there has been growing interest in other forms of provision such as distance learning, open learning and flexible learning.

The Scottish Higher Education Funding Council (SHEFC) has a duty to assess the quality of education which it is funding. It has done this since September 2000 through the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) for Higher Education, a UK body established by the higher education sector. The QAA audits higher education institutions' arrangements for maintaining the standards of their programmes and awards.

Special Assistance for Students

In recent years institutions of higher education have recognised the need to make particular arrangements for students with certain disabilities to take their courses and to sit examinations.

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Further Education Colleges

Performance in National Certificate units is assessed internally by college lecturers, by reference to nationally agreed criteria of success. Their assessments are verified for validity and reliability by the SQA, which employs 'moderators' for that purpose. Achievement in each unit is recorded on the Scottish Qualifications Certificate, awarded by the SQA. Since 1999 external assessment has been an additional requirement for the Scottish Group Awards (SGA) which are gradually replacing the General Scottish Vocational Qualifications (GSVQ).

Arrangements for the assessment and certification of work-based learning are also in place. These depend on agreements between industry or individual firms and local colleges of further education for the latter to act as assessors or examiners. There are several models of industry-college partnership for this purpose:

• training may be jointly planned by a college and a local firm and delivered partly in college and partly at the work-place, with the college lecturers taking responsibility for monitoring performance and standards;
• training may be more flexible and include a number of open learning modules as well as work-based units, supported by college staff;
• some employers prefer simply to contract training out wholly to the local college, which thus becomes a kind of apprentice training centre;
• the arrangement for a college or colleges to train apprentices may be negotiated by a particular industry, perhaps through a National Training Organisation or Sector Skills Council; and
• a similar arrangement may be negotiated by a consortium of several local employers.

Whatever the arrangement, much of the assessment of performance is carried out in the workplace as well as in the college of further education.

Universities and Higher Education Institutions

Assessment of students is most likely to be by a combination of written examinations, traditionally at the end of each academic year, and assessment on the basis of work submitted during the course or of a large piece of work done in the student's own time. In courses where it is appropriate there are also practical examinations, for example in the sciences or in oral proficiency in languages. The actual assessment is normally carried out by the department in which the student is studying, but there will also be one or more external examiners from another institution or institutions, who will sample some of the work (course work as well as examination papers).

Further Education Colleges

In a modular system, such as that which has been introduced in Scotland, promotion, or student progress, tends to depend on the meeting the assessment criteria of a set of required modules, some of which are pre-requisites for entry to others.

Universities and Higher Education Institutions

Traditionally, promotion from year to year has depended on passing examinations, and in some cases, for example, for entry to Honours courses, on attaining sufficiently high assessments. Often students must obtain a number of examination passes before she or he can progress to the next year. The exact number depends on the course and the institution. Usually two opportunities are given to sit the examinations, except in the case of final Honours examinations, which may only be taken once.

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Further Education

The principal assessment body for vocational further education in Scotland is the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA), which makes awards at non-advanced and advanced levels for a wide range of courses in the technical and business sectors. At the non-advanced level the certificate awarded is known as the National Certificate (NC); at the advanced level the awards are the Higher National Certificate (HNC) and the Higher National Diploma (HND).

The SQA is also the statutory accreditation body for Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQs).

The Education (Scotland) Act 1996 provided for the SQA to take over the functions of both the Scottish Examination Board (SEB) and the Scottish Vocational Education Council (SCOTVEC). The latter body had a Council and Board of Management comprising up to 20 members representing professional, technical, industrial, commercial, training and educational interests. It worked in co-operation with the local authorities through their representative body, the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA) and with the then Scottish Office Education and Industry Department (SOEID), the Local Enterprise Companies (LEC), Scottish Enterprise (SE) and Highlands and Islands Enterprise (HIE). It had responsibility for the development and maintenance of a unified and coherent system of competence-based vocational qualifications.

It was not only responsible for awarding certificates but for the validation of courses and for the development, administration and assessment for National Certificate modules and programmes, HNC and HND course units and programmes, as well as some professional development awards. The SQA, having taken over the functions of SCOTVEC, devises and awards qualifications at further education level (as well as at school level) and also approves education and training establishments as suitable places to offer courses leading to these qualifications.

Accreditation is the process of recognising qualifications as acceptable national standards. Relevant qualifications may be offered either by the SQA in its capacity as an awarding body or by other (mainly commercial) awarding bodies. The Education (Scotland) Act 1996 provided for the establishment by SQA of an Accreditation Committee. This requirement reflects the need for a clear separation between SQA's awarding and accrediting functions to avoid any perception of unfair competition with the other awarding bodies whose qualifications are accredited by the SQA. The work of the Accreditation Unit, since it provides a national regulatory facility, is funded by grant-in-aid from the Scottish Executive Enterprise, Transport and Lifelong Learning Department (SEETLLD).

The City and Guilds of London Institute (CGLI) also offers examinations in Scotland, and a number of FE colleges present students for examinations set by the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) or by professional institutions.

Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQ) exist at five levels. These qualifications have been designed by employers for specific areas of employment and therefore relate to an individual's ability to do a specific job, based on actual working practices in real workplace conditions. The SVQ is analogous to the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) operating in the rest of the United Kingdom and both are recognised as valid qualifications across the European Union.

Higher Education

Universities have the right to award degrees to those who successfully complete their courses. The holder of a degree is described as a 'graduate'. Universities are responsible for the courses which lead to these degrees and for their own standards. Two higher education institutions in Scotland which are not full universities (Queen Margaret University College in Edinburgh and the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama in Glasgow) have been granted the right to award degrees. In the other higher education institutions, although the institution provides the teaching, the degrees are awarded by a university. Degrees awarded in Scotland are recognised throughout the United Kingdom.

In Scotland, although the first degree in most faculties is a Bachelor's degree, the first degree in Arts in the four 'ancient' universities and Dundee University is MA or Master of Arts. Heriot-Watt University also offers some 'first degree' MAs, but at Honours level only. A Master's degree in all other faculties and in the other universities is a post-graduate qualification.

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The Further and Higher Education Charter for Scotland (1993) sets out a framework of standards that students, employers and the wider community should be able to expect from colleges of further education and higher education institutions. It covers access for students, information about courses and guidance and counselling, both in relation to their studies and to careers and further study.

Further Education

Over recent years much thought has been given to providing guidance in the context of further education. All colleges provide guidance to students in selecting an appropriate course of study. During courses they provide progress reviews, curricular and pastoral support, and advice and guidance on careers or further studies. Each college has its own arrangements for providing these services.

Since 1992 all Scottish FE colleges have also become signatories to the agreement among higher education institutions concerning credit accumulation and transfer, because of their delivery of HE courses at HNC and HND levels.

FE colleges have close relationships with employers in their areas. Employers are represented on their Boards of Management. The colleges depend for a considerable part of their work on employees being sent for training and also on employers for those parts of courses which take place in the workplace. The Further and Higher Education Charter for Scotland (1993) makes it clear that colleges are expected to work with employers, keeping them informed about the institution, the courses offered, how they are taught, the aims and objectives of work placements, the amount of time required for study and the levels of proficiency which are expected to be attained, and should be able to help them to select appropriate education and training courses. They are required to report to employers the progress of their employees who are taking courses and also to help employers in their recruitment of employees.

The SQA has an Information Centre which provides a range of services: information for employers, prospective students and others about qualifications; details of where courses are provided and of the entry requirements for them; vocational education and training databases; and publications, including guides on assessment and quality assurance. The SQA officers are available to offer information and advice on vocational education and training.

Higher Education

Higher education institutions have machinery to advise students on courses and to deal with their difficulties. The exact form of these arrangements differs according to the institution and often the faculty within the institution.

The university tradition in Scotland was for students to start their course with a more general range of subjects and to proceed to specialised studies. They could thus delay their decisions about specialisation, or change initial intentions. Such decision making was supported by university staff in a pastoral role, as Director of Studies or a similar title. However, some institutions are now offering courses which do not conform to this structure.

Higher education institutions have relationships with industry, commerce and the professions on several different levels. They provide courses, for example in management, tailored to the needs of particular types of business. They have contacts with firms to help students to obtain placements when that is a requirement of their course. Members of staff of the institutions carry out work for firms as consultants or on secondments which keep them in touch with developments in the field. The university careers services have close contacts with the major employers of graduates. For their part, major firms commission research from higher education institutions and send their staff to them for training.

There is no institutional provision of private education in the post-school sector. Private providers do offer training and educational courses in various fields.

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A number of bodies which serve the whole United Kingdom and operate on the basis of distance learning have considerable numbers of students in Scotland. Among these are the Open College, which was set up on a UK basis to extend vocational training options through distance learning, and the longer established National Extension College.

In higher education, the Open University has many students in Scotland (over 13,600), many of whom are studying for a first degree. It offers a very wide range of courses, particularly in the sciences and humanities, and shorter courses for professional updating and personal interests. It does not demand formal entrance qualifications and it is possible for its students to build up courses leading to a degree over a number of years while still in employment, by way of private study, marked assignments and formal examinations. Although study is home-based, there is a network of 37 study/support centres throughout Scotland which offer contact points for students to meet their tutors, counsellors and fellow students. Students can also receive help and support by telephone in their own homes. To aid its students in their studies the Open University has published a large amount of valuable teaching material which is used far beyond the courses for which it was designed. The Open University also offers course validation to other institutions without their own degree-awarding powers.

The UHI Millennium Institute offers higher education across the Highlands and Islands and Perthshire via contractual arrangements with local colleges of further education and other non-SHEFC-funded institutions. It has developed its use of information and communications technology to link these institutions and other outreach centres. This enables students of the Institute studying in different centres to keep in touch, and has made it possible for the Institute to offer 'networked' programmes at more than one centre.

learndirect scotland (the brand name for the Scottish University for Industry) was launched in October 2000 to promote a culture of lifelong learning across all sectors of society. learndirect scotland is not an educational institution, but acts as a broker between the individuals and companies that require learning and learning providers. learndirect scotland is not another provider of learning; rather it acts as a gateway for information and advice on learning opportunities. People can access information and advice on courses, 'bite-sized learning', on-line learning, funding support and childcare from learndirect scotland's network of branded learning centres, website and helpline. A total of 10m was made available from the Capital Modernisation Fund in the 18 months leading up to 31 March 2002 to assist learning centres meet the necessary criteria to achieve learndirect scotland branding. A network of over 300 branded learning centres has been established throughout Scotland.

Up to 31 March 2002 learndirect scotland's achievements were as follows:

- Over 280,000 serviced helpline enquiries;
- Over 5.6m website hits; and
- 313 lds branded learning centres, 158 of which are in socially excluded area.

New challenging targets have been set for 2002/03.

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Further and more detailed statistics to those given here are available on the Scottish Executive web site at http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/.

Statistics are collected and published separately for post-school education in further education and higher education institutions. More details can be found on the Scottish Executive web site at http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/publist.aspx?theme=37&pillar=people.

Student Numbers in Non-Advanced Further Education