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Transferability of Best Practice in Transport Policy Delivery : Final Report
Technical appendix 1
Transport governance structures in Europe
Source materials:
A wide range of source materials have been sought for this review, with the aim of establishing the results of previous research into transport administration. This has included research into local government structures, and public transport organisations. Few references exist that combine all aspects of transport administration, as most focus on a particular aspect. The aim here has been to bring these together, with the aim of establishing an overall picture of the transport structures within each country or region, their competencies, evidence of implementation difficulties, and any other information relating to effective and efficient transport administration and implementation.
Much of the information is only available at a national level, and the focus on particular regions has only been possible in some instances, or in relation to specific aspects of transport administration or public transport systems. However, wherever possible the information is given at the regional level, giving regional organisations and institutions, and specifying the situation specific to the region.
Much of the information for this review comes from a few previous research reports. These are: the Maretope research into the "legal, organisational and financial framework of local public transport in Europe", focusing on the introduction of competition to public transport systems across Europe; the Leda project on the "legal and regulatory measures for sustainable transport in cities". Another study by Keating (1999) entitled "The Politics of Modern Europe" also provides information on some European countries, while Wannop's (1995) "The Regional Imperative" provides some information about some European countries and also specific regions in the United States. (See reference list for details). All other references have been quoted in the text where they have been used.
Structure of the review
The review is set out by country, with any common structures being pointed out and summarised at the end.
It is worth noting that, while every effort was made to find any previous research done relating to good practice, and the efficiency and efficacy of transport administration, little previous research of this sort has been done. The information given here therefore relates more to the substantive structures, rather than their ability to provide efficient transport systems.
Spain; Madrid and Barcelona
Government structure
There are three levels of government in Spain: national, regional and local (municipal). 17 autonomous regions were established between 1979 and 1983, and a further 2 more are now being formed (Ceuta and Melilla, which are Spanish towns positioned on the coast of Morocco). The autonomy of these regions is set out in the constitution, and plays a major role in determining the transport competencies of the regional authorities. This makes the regional level of government more powerful than in most other countries in Europe. The municipal level, on the other hand, has little power, and is often restricted by the resources available at the local level, resulting in marked disparities in the services available at municipal level.
Government responsibilities:
The national government is responsible for the traffic rules, road transport taxes, and public road network, including inter-regional motorways. The national rail service (RENFE) is also run by central government, and is entirely publicly owned, and there are no plans to privatise any part of the service. The National Traffic Authority is a national level authority made up of the Directorate of Traffic and the Ministry of the Interior, with input from regions where they have a shared responsibility for maintenance (as some regions do). The Directorate of Traffic is responsible for traffic management on interurban and urban main roads. National government is also responsible for the infrastructure of the national road and rail network.
The regional level of government is responsible for the infrastructure of the regional road and rail network.
The municipal level of government is responsible for parking policies, local road administration, and cycle and pedestrian ways. Municipalities can also prepare Urban Plans which set down their policies in relation to parking, public transport, etc.
Public transport provision
Unlike most European countries, Spain still organises its public transport in the form of provision of concessions or in-house provision of bus services, and through delegated management of underground and rail services. However, public service contracts are increasingly being used, and increases in competition in tendering of services are expected, in line with European regulations.
While some metropolitan areas have moved towards more integrated transport systems (as shown in the case studies below), many areas still lack this integration, and there is a lack of organisational framework to achieve this integration in many areas. This is exacerbated by the dispersion of competencies between the three levels of government, which makes integration more problematic. The fact that metropolitan relations are not clearly defined also makes integration more problematic, as does the lack of a stable framework for financing and subsidising schemes.
Italy
Government structure
The Italian government consists of four tiers; the national government, regions, and provinces, and municipalities. The national government sets laws and guidelines to which lower levels of government must adhere.
There are 20 regions, which vary considerably in area and population. They also have the power to pass laws and acts in line with national laws, and also establish plans, in line with national guidelines. These laws, acts and plans are passed by the elected Regional Council, and are enforced by the Regional Government. Their competencies include traffic, transport, public works, water ways, environment and health.
The provincial government consists of an elected Provincial Council and have the authority to issue acts and plans, which they can then enforce. Their competencies include traffic, transport, environment and health.
The municipal level of government also has an elected council, which approves acts that are enforced by the municipal government.
Government responsibilities
Road Networks and Regulations: The National Ministry of Transport is the national government department which draws up the General Transport Plan. This deals with national and international transport networks, including the road, rail and air routes, and links in with the transport plans of lower levels of government. The Ministry of Public Works deals with the construction of new infrastructure for both the road and rail network. The national government also sets the framework for traffic regulations and the requirements for vehicle, and safety regulations, and also for vehicle taxes. The national government also provides guidelines for parking in urban areas, which are then implemented by the municipalities. They also have considerable influence over traffic calming, as this has to get special permission from the Ministry of Public Works.
The regional councils draw up Regional Transport Plans, which specify the future infrastructure, management and financial needs of the transport networks. They also aim to co-ordinate the provinces and municipalities. However, they have no responsibility for taxes, parking or traffic calming.
The provincial councils are responsible for the construction and maintenance of their road network. They can also draw up plans for traffic calming on their own roads networks, though they must apply to the Ministry of Public Works before they can implement these.
At the municipal level, councils that represent urban areas with populations of over 30,000 are obliged to draw up Urban Traffic Plans. These set out how they intend to adapt the road network in line with anticipated traffic flows, and include plans for parking, speed limits, and traffic regulations. While the national level of government is the only one able to impose taxes, the municipalities are able to introduce road pricing policies. They can also use the money gathered from parking and from fines.
Public Road Transport: The national government sets the minimum level of service of national public transport. It also regulates the public transport market, and finances the regional and municipal transport companies, though the National Transportation Fund.
Regional councils now have considerable power in regulating the public transport in their area, following the introduction of a law passed in 1997. This law requires that they set minimum standards and quality of service, and set fare schedules, by themselves passing a law. However, the implementation of this law has been slow, and few regions have managed to draw up these laws.
Provincial governments manage their own transport companies, which provide provincial public transport, outside the urban areas. They also draw up District Transport Plans, which specify plans for both infrastructure and management of provincial public transport, as well as a financial breakdown of the operating costs, fares, and infrastructure requirements. In drawing up this plan, the provinces must consult all the municipalities in their area, and the plan is then approved by the region.
At the municipal level, the Urban Traffic Plan specifies the urban public transport services which the municipality will supply through the publicly owned urban transport companies. The Plan also specifies measures to be introduced, such as bus lanes, and other public transport priority schemes, and park and ride facilities. Thus in relation to sustainable transport modes (other than rail), the municipalities have the most competencies. The cost coverage of local public transport in 1997 was 33.7%, though was estimated to increase to 38% in 2000.
Rail: The Ministry of Transport is responsible for the railways, particularly in regard to infrastructure investment. The rail services are all operated by the state owned Italian State Railway.
Alternative Modes: There is no formal structure for the implementation of alternative transport modes; the Ministry of the Environment encourages the use of low emission vehicles by the municipalities' urban public transport companies, who in turn are expected to promote their use.
Land Use: The national government sets the framework for land use planning, by setting standards and specifications on zoning, etc. The regional and provincial governments then implement these in their areas, while the municipalities draw up spatial plans for their area in relation to the different land uses.
Environment: The Ministry of the Environment coordinates and controls regional environmental policies, and fixes pollution standards for cities. When air pollution levels exceed the limits set by the Ministry, the municipalities must implement measures to reduce emissions.
Barriers to integration
While municipalities have the greatest competencies in relation to sustainable transport, and modal shift, they do not always use these competencies, or do not enforce measures that have been adopted. There are also difficulties involved in coordination of municipalities' traffic plans by the provinces and regions.
Changes in public transport structures
There have been various recent changes to legislation which will, in future, mean that local authorities and regions have increased responsibility for public transport in their area. At the same time there will be increased competition in the public transport system, changes in the public transport companies to shareholder companies, and the introduction of tendering for services. These changes should be implemented by the end of 2003, though many regional and local authorities have, so far, been unable to implement any of these changes.
One of the consequences of these changes is that the regions and local authorities will have a role that is more related to the management, regulation and financing of public transport. It is anticipated that this may result in the creation of ad hoc authorities between different authorities, which would be of a voluntary nature, and would be created with the expectation of enabling integration of services over a larger area. However, no reference to such ad hoc authorities could be found directly.
France; Paris
Government structure
France is one of the few countries in Europe to have four tiers of government, with 22 regions, 96 departments and 36,500 communes. Each commune has an elected mayor and council, and all communes have equal powers. The 96 departments have general councils that are elected from constituencies known as cantons. The boundaries of both communes and departments have not changed since the French Revolution, and no longer reflect contemporary social and economic geography. The regions were established in 1972, and since 1986 have been directly elected. They consist of groups of departments that are often considered to be out of step with the needs of planning and administration. They are politically and financially autonomous, though they have less power than many other regional governments in Europe.
The national level of government is very dominant, as most powers and competencies are held by central government. Most administrative services are provided by outposts of central government ministries, which can run services themselves, or may also contract with local governments. In each region and in each department there are centrally appointed prefects, who manage the delegated state services.
Voluntary urban communities
In the 1990s a voluntary system of urban communities was established in large towns and cities, formed by groupings of communes. These are indirectly elected councils, and have some tax raising powers and can share several functions, including urban public transport and local planning, though the communes also retain their independent existence. These urban communities have thus fostered some integration in transport, planning and infrastructure decisions for metropolitan areas, and through the pooling of business taxes. However, because of their indirect election they are politically weak, and tend to lack the focus needed for strategic resourcing. Encouraging co-operation between mayors has also often been politically difficult. However, some have seen these as the most comprehensive city-regional structure in Europe (Newman, 2000).
Public transport and traffic responsibilities
These voluntary associations of communes only exist where the urban area exceeds a certain threshold, in which case an urban transport perimeter is established, within which the association works in conjunction with the state to draw up an overall transport policy, while the association will be responsible for implementing the local public transport policies and services. They also often own the infrastructure, equipment and rolling stock used by the operating companies. This system was introduced through the Law on Internal Transport (Loi d'Orientation des Transports Interieurs, LOTI) in 1982.
In 1982 another law was passed on the quality of the air and the urban travel plans (PDUs). This made it an obligation for the organising authority (whether it is an association of communes, a single commune, or the SPT in Paris), in towns and cities of over 100,000 inhabitants, to draw up a PDU, and to implement it in a concerted way. This plan sets out the policies on passenger and goods transport, on traffic circulation and parking within the urban periphery. As this is now a legal requirement for all urban areas, it is hoped that all cities and towns will be treated equally, and will make the same efforts, without losing traffic (and customers) to other cities.
Funding for urban public transport comes partly from a 'transport tax', unique to France. This tax is levied on every institution, public or private, with more than nine employees, and is based on total wages.
Road and rail responsibilities
Regions have the main responsibility for regional planning, economic development and training. Departments concentrate on social services and highway maintenance, and communes are responsible for local planning, environmental matters and local infrastructure, though in practice many responsibilities are shared.
In relation to road transport, national government sets road regulations, taxes, etc. The motorways are managed by private enterprises (toll motorways) or by national government (free motorways). The national government also administers the national roads, though these are decreasing in number, and the department is the now the most important roads administrator for national roads. The department and the municipality share the setting of restrictions on national and departmental roads in municipalities. In relation to municipal roads, the communes have complete control.
The rail network and transport is run by the national railway company, the Societe Nationale des Chamins de Fer (SNCF), which is under the responsibility of the national government. In 1997 the railway infrastructure split away into the Reseau Ferre de France (RFF), thus separating infrastructure maintenance and operations.
Integration of services
Integration of services may be problematic because, according to French law, none of the tiers of local government can exert any kind of supervision or power over any other tier of local government, or between different areas.
Paris: transport organisations
The prime position of Paris and its region (the Ile-de-France, IDF) within the French economy, and the large extent of its urban area mean that the situation there is somewhat different from elsewhere in France. Rather than associations of communes making up the organising authority for urban transport, in Paris it is the Syndicat des Transports Parisiens (STP), which is a partnership between the departments within the urban area and representatives of various national ministries, and which is under state, rather than local, authority.
The STP is mainly financed by employer's transport tax.
The SPT is responsible for transit routes, choice of operators through tendering, transport modes, tariff policies, and the approval and management of transport operators' budgets.
For major public transport capital investment projects the SPT works in conjunction with the region and the 'Fonds de Developpement Economique et Social' (FDES, economic and social development fund, an inter-ministry body).
Public transport provision
There are two major state owned companies that provide public transport in Paris: the RATP (Regie Autonome des Transports Parisiens - for metro and buses) and the SNCF (for all suburban and national rail). Private companies also provide some of the public transport, and these companies are organised into a consortium of private operators (OPTIL). These private companies only provide 7.5% (by ridership) of Paris' urban public transport, and this tends to be the bus routes on the urban periphery.
Integration of services
Despite the large number of different operators, there is considerable integration of public transport across the IDF region. Bus routes are linked to railway lines, and the suburban railway (RER) runs on lines belonging to both the RATP and the SNCF, and there is a fully integrated tariff policy.
In the IDF region the number of passenger kms, the total costs, and the % of costs raised from tickets have all been slowly increasing between 1991 and 1999, with cost coverage at 50% in 1999.
Belgium
Government Structure
The Belgian government has four tiers of government: national, regional, provincial, and municipal.
The national, federal government is the highest level of government, and its competencies are set out in the constitution.
There are three regions, which are defined along linguistic lines: Flanders is Dutch speaking, Wallonia is French and Walloon speaking, and Brussels is bilingual. The main role of the regions is to oversee the municipalities, though they also have competencies set out in the constitution, as described below.
The regions of Flanders and Wallonia are divided into communities. These relate to groups of people, rather than territories. They have few competencies in relation to transports, though they do have responsibilities for cultural matters, education, language, and co-operation between communities.
The municipalities use the framework set by higher authorities, and relate these to the local situation.
Government Responsibilities
Road and Rail Infrastructure: The National Railway Company (SNCB-NMBS) and the rail infrastructure are under state control.
Road maintenance and construction are regional matters, with no input from the federal government. They also have the greatest responsibility for traffic issues, such as traffic calming, speed limits, etc. Municipalities do have responsibility for the transport infrastructure in their area. The regional roads network includes the main roads in urban areas, which the municipalities do not have control over. This can mean that municipalities have difficulty introducing sustainable transport measures in their area.
Traffic calming measures are considered to be part of the maintenance of the roads network, so municipalities have control over the introduction of such measures on their own road network, while the regions are responsible for traffic calming on the regional road network.
Traffic and Vehicle Regulations: The federal government is responsible for the framework of traffic and transport regulations. The regions can also issue traffic orders, which do not need federal approval, as long as they are within the federal government's framework.
The municipalities are only able to issue traffic orders on local and provincial roads with federal approval, and they cannot issue traffic orders for regional roads. This has occasionally restricted municipalities' ability to introduce innovative traffic measures, and often slow down the implementation of the orders. There are also discrepancies between what is allowed through alterations to infrastructure, and what requires approval as a traffic order. Furthermore, the fact that approval is sought from federal, rather than regional government, can be seen to undermine the authority of the regions, and goes against the principle of subsidiarity.
Municipalities are mainly responsible for parking policies, though to introduce new measures they have to issue an order, which must be approved by federal government.
Federal government is responsible for erecting all transport signs, which can slow down the implementation of municipal transport measures.
Road Taxes: The federal government holds all the responsibility for vehicle and fuel taxes. As yet, there are no road pricing schemes.
Public Transport: The regions have the greatest competencies for public transport, e.g. they enter into contacts with the monopolistic public transport companies. Both urban and regional public transport is administered by the regionally funded and controlled transport companies. They also make decisions about the network, information, marketing, fares, etc.
There has been a gradual increase in passenger numbers on public transport in the Brussels Region (from 188 million passengers in 1989 to 223 million passengers in 2000). This has been explained by the change from federal to regional control of public road transport in 1989, and to the introduction of low fare schemes in 1999.
Municipalities do not have any competency for public transport, even in urban areas, which severely restricts their ability to introduce sustainable transport policies.
Alternative Modes: The municipality has control of many changes to municipal roads that might encourage walking and cycling, eg. pedestrian zones, walk and cycle ways, priority signals, etc. Similarly, the regional governments can make such changes to their roads network.
The municipalities can also introduce other alternative transport modes, eg. car pooling, and can implement park and ride facilities.
Land Use: Land use planning and decisions are generally restricted to the federal, regional and provincial levels. The regions have a very significant role in this, though setting the regional guidelines, and also having responsibility for aspects such as urban development and renewal, landscape policy, renewal and construction of industrial areas, and of old buildings. The municipalities are responsible for land use planning in their area. The principle of subsidiarity generally guides the land use policies from regional structure plans down to the local level. The regional structure plans specify where new housing, retail, industry, commerce, and leisure facilities will be implemented.
Environment: The federal and regional level of government share environmental competencies. The regions are responsible for maintaining European pollution limits, and for policies on waste management, dangerous waste, air quality and noise abatement. The federal government is restricted to setting legal requirements relating to the environment.
Barriers to Integration
The main difficulties experienced by municipalities seeking to implement sustainable transport policies is their lack of competency, and the need to consult the federal government on many changes to their own roads. The split in competencies between regional and municipal governments (particularly in relation to roads and public transport) means that co-operation between the two is essential in the pursuit of any sustainable transport measures. The influence of federal government is also strong, and thus coordination with federal government is also essential.
An example of where such co-operation has been implemented is in the use of mobility covenants in Flanders. These were agreements between the regional road administration, the regional public transport company, and the municipality. All these parties must approve mobility plans drawn up at the local level, with the aim of formalising the previously ad hoc transport planning policies. Through such means, some Flemish cities have managed to introduce sustainable transport policies, eg. Bruges, Ghent and Hasselt.
Denmark; Copenhagen
Government structure
Denmark has three tiers of government: national, regional (made up of 14 counties), and local (made up of 275 municipalities). Laws can only be passed by the national government, and each ministry has supporting agencies to assist with administration, including several involved in transport: the Ministry of Transport, the Road Directorate, the National Railway Agency, the Danish State Railways, Relations to the Transport Council, and others relating to road safety, the environment and energy, taxes, and trade.
In the counties the county council is the elected political body, while in the municipalities this is the city council. The city council is made up of committees, which have delegated powers; eg. committees for traffic and town planning have a central role regarding traffic regulations. In the two major cities, Copenhagen and Frederiksberg, the municipalities also act as counties.
National government responsibilities
The national government is responsible for nation road and rail infrastructure conditions, planning and financing of infrastructure, including national and local railways and international and primary national roads. Decisions regarding construction of new roads are taken by the roads authority, though major pieces of infrastructure require the passing of new laws, eg. the recent construction of the Copenhagen metro. There are road authorities for each level of government, and these are each responsible for different levels of road, and for infrastructure for pedestrians and cyclists on these roads, following guidelines set by government.
The national government also sets vehicle requirements, road taxes, registration fees, speed limits, etc. They also administer deductions in taxes when commuting more than 24km, and green taxes relating to a vehicle's energy consumption.
The rail network has recently been divided into the National Railway Company (responsible for infrastructure), and the Danish State Railway (responsible for operations). The operations are split into national and regional services, and since 2001 the counties have been responsible for these regional services (there are 13 regional services, of which six are in the Greater Copenhagen Region). Rail fares are set by national government.
Regional government responsibilities
The counties are responsible for regional planning of the road and rail infrastructure, and for public transport in co-operation with cities and municipalities. The regional road authority is responsible for secondary national and regional roads outside urban areas, for pedestrian and cycle infrastructure, including separate paths.
Regional public transport (bus and rail) is also managed by the counties. Most counties also have a regional bus company, which is responsible for planning, contracting services, and setting fare levels at regional level. Different counties have chosen different ways of procuring their public bus transport; some counties tender some or all of their services, while others have chosen to provide services 'in-house'; tendering is only mandatory within the Greater Copenhagen Region.
Municipal government responsibilities
Municipal government acts as the local roads authority, and is responsible for local road and rail infrastructure, parking, and for all city street. They are also responsible for local public transport within the municipality, whether there is a regional bus company or not. Municipalities can also implement public transport priority measures, in co-operation with the bus company. Parking and traffic management are carried out at municipality level, along with measures such as building new roads and introducing pedestrian areas, and 'stay and play' areas on residential roads.
Land use planning is carried out at each level of government, with considerable power delegated down to regional and municipal level. Each level works to the framework set by the level above, though in urban areas the municipalities have the most important role, in that the underlying principle is to solve local problems locally. Planning in cities aims to co-ordinate land use, localisation and traffic planning. There is an emphasis on sustainable development, with objectives set by national government. However, they are only able to support the municipalities to fulfil the objectives, and cannot impose restrictions on them.
Policy implementation
There have been difficulties in implementing sustainable development policies in some of the larger cities in relation to traffic measures, due to competition between cities. As such measures are dependent on the municipal government, it may be seen as more competitive to reduce such restrictions.
Germany; Munich
Government structure
The Federal Republic of Germany has three tiers of government: national, regional, which consists of 16 Laender, and local, which consists of districts or towns with autonomous administration. The Laender are divided into rural counties (Landkreise), and cities (Stadtkreise). The Landkreise are further divided into communes (Gemeinden), which have the general competence to do anything not prohibited by law, and thus have considerable policy-making autonomy. The Landkreise have responsibility for larger scale operations (eg. secondary education and utilities). In the city-states of Hamburg and Berlin the Land government is also the city council (Keating, 1999).
Road and rail responsibilities
The national government has authority over all air traffic and the railways, while both national and Laender governments have authority concerning road traffic, smaller railways, and land use. The national railways are managed by a public limited company, though the only share holders are the national government, who still administer the railways, approve plans, and give authorisation to operations. Each level of government has the responsibility to construct and maintain their own roads, and also have certain powers regarding road traffic regulations and parking on their roads. Infrastructure for cyclists is the responsibility of local government.
Public transport responsibilities
Public road transport is administered by each different level of government, while the railways are divided between the state railway network and the regional network, administered by the corresponding level of government. Regional governments are also responsible for ensuring there are sufficient regional rail services. This makes it difficult to co-ordinate road and rail public transport in cities. Many of the authorities responsible for public transport have converted to public transport executives, and are responsible for carrying out competitive tendering procedures. However, this has not happened everywhere, and even where competitive tending has been introduced, the financial systems for contracting and subisdising services are not always in line with the competitive system, and the funding system remains highly complex.
Planning responsibilities
Land use planning is done at both regional and local level, and transport planning is a local competence, though there is no obligation to integrate transport planning into urban and regional planning. Building laws are to a large extent "car-oriented", and this restricts the scope of urban transport planning. However, transport development plans are often not in place, and there can be a lack of will to implement transport measures due to political concerns regarding competitiveness. Reforms in land use planning introduced in 1998 have encouraged informal regional networks, which foster co-operation between regions and cities. These forms of informal regional policy development were initially found only in West Germany, though they are starting to become popular in East Germany too (Herrschel & Newman, 2000).
Local government funding
Taxes are used to fund 70% of regional government activities, with the rest coming from grants, charges and other sources. Local government, on the other hand, receives only 40% of its funding from taxes; they are more dependent on business taxes, and their finances are therefore much less stable than those of the regions (Wannop, 1995).
The Netherlands; Amsterdam
Government structure
There are three levels of government in the Netherlands, though none of them correspond to the regional level found in Germany and elsewhere. Under the national government there are the provinces, and below them are the municipalities.
This structure is in question at the moment, as a new 'framework law' is being introduced, which is creating 'framework law areas' around the larger cities, similar to city regions. Political discussion regarding this development is ongoing, and opinions are divided. These city regions could draw their competencies from all levels of government.
The national government has extensive competencies, particularly relating to fiscal matters, such as the granting and regulation of subsidies, including those granted to the municipalities. However, the provinces and municipalities also have considerable autonomy, and if the national government wants to intercede in their business a new law is required.
The provinces are historically strong, and they are required to supervise local authorities, while the municipalities themselves have considerable delegated powers. They receive funding from the state, which they have complete control over for small investments, while funding for larger investments must have prior state approval.
Government responsibilities
The national government is most responsibility for the environment, planning and the railways; management of the Dutch Railways (NS) lies solely with the national government. However, NS has now been privatised, and has been split into different networks, a good transport unit, and a passenger transport unit. They also have responsibility for the national tariff and ticket system. The government also awards licences to public transport operators, both road and rail. In relation to the road network, the national government is responsible for the trunk road network, and also for regulations and requirements for vehicles.
Another of the national government's competencies is planning; the state determines plans for land use, though a national plan, and also a national plan for transport and traffic. A law also defines the relations between the different levels of government regarding transport and traffic, and other land use issues.
The provinces also have an important role to play in planning, and in traffic and transport matters; they administer their own roads network, and are responsible for regional public transport. Regional public transport companies are now overseen by the provincial governments, which are in turn responsible for regional public transport, including annual time-tables.
The municipal level of government administers their own road network, though guidelines and overall requirements are set by the Ministry of Transport, at the national level. They must also operate a transport policy that takes account of the national plan. Traffic and parking regulations are also within their remit. Municipalities are obliged to draw up land use plans known as 'destination plans', which also reflect state and provincial guidelines. Public transport in larger cities can either be provided by a publicly owner company, or is provided through a tendering process, and is managed by the City Council, and must approve the municipal public transport time-tables, and co-ordination with adjacent authorities. This system leaves the municipalities with considerable freedom to develop their own transport policies and plans, as well as sustainability measures.
Public transport funding
Funding for public transport comes in part from a subsidy from central government, which is in proportion to the amount of income from the public transport services themselves; eg. 1.50guilders subsidy for every guilder earned. These subsidies are distributed to the regional authorities who are then responsible for distributing them down to the operating companies.
The average cost coverage of public transport is 35% for urban transport, and 40% for regional buses, though the present objective is to increase this to 50%. The regional authorities may also contribute to public transport, though this rarely happens.
Investment in infrastructure comes mainly from the national government (90%), with the regions providing the other 10%, often from the operating companies. The Ministry of Transport therefore plays a vital role in larger infrastructure investments.
Public transport provision
The Netherlands has long been considered an example of good practice in public transport provision. However, this has been mirrored by high levels of subsidy. The recent introduction of competitive tendering has aimed to reduce these subsidy levels, while maintaining or improving service levels. This has not yet been achieved, as subsidy levels have remained high. The reduction of in-house production of public transport services is also considered by some to be less democratic, as the passengers (voters) no longer have direct influences on the services they are subsidising.
Amsterdam's public transport
Amsterdam's public transport system is still publicly owned, and gives a clear example of some of the problems that can be associated with this form of provision. During the 1980s and 1990s the levels of subsidy have increase, with a resultant reduction in cost coverage, which now stands at about 30%. Investments in rolling stock have also been low, because of financial constraints, and services were not updated. Employment relations and political concerns also hampered improvements to services. A separate public transport company has now been established, which may improve the situation, though there are not yet any plans for further privatisation.
Austria; Graz
Government structure
The Austrian government has three tiers. The national level of government has executive power over most major national concerns, including the railways. The ministries and government agencies that carry out the government's administration.
Below the national, federal government, there are nine provinces ( BundesLaender). These have their own constitution, parliaments, and governments. Their executive powers cover conservation, land use, building and housing, among other matters. They are also responsible for administering the tasks that the federal government delegates them.
The municipal level of government is made up of several thousand communities ( Gemeinden). These communities have a high level of independence, and are considered to have 'self-administration', in that they have the scope to implement national and provincial law, leaving the communities with a high level of discretionary powers, eg. the granting of planning permission for most development.
This structure of government rests on the notion that the regional and municipal authorities implement tasks and duties on behalf of higher levels of government. The provinces are also responsible for administering federal law.
There are also a number of district authorities in each province, that implement tasks delegated to them by the provincial government or indirectly from the national government. Larger cities in Austria have been assigned the status of a Statutarstadt, whereby they combine the competencies of both district and municipal authority.
Government responsibilities
Road Networks and Regulations: The federal, provincial and municipal authorities each have responsibility for their own road networks. This includes construction, closures, and maintenance, and is applicable even when national roads cut through municipal road networks, as in some towns. This has been found to be a problem, as provincial or federal roads policies can restrict the municipalities' efforts to promote less car usage.
Regulations and requirements for vehicles and speed limits are set by national government, though municipal government can also specify certain standards, and can set speed limits of 30 and 50 kph.
Taxation levels on vehicles and on fuel are set by the federal government. Fuel tax is then redistributed for use on the construction and maintenance of roads on all the different networks. The provincial governments also set rules for parking fees that are then implemented by the municipalities. There is also a toll for motorway usage.
Parking and traffic calming measures are implemented by the appropriate road authority, though the provinces set standards which should be adhered to by both provincial and municipal authorities.
Public transport: The public transport network consists of national and regional railways, and national, regional and local buses, while some of the larger cities also have tram line and Vienna has a metro system. Rail fares are set by the federal government, and service levels, routings and fare levels for taxis, trams and buses are all set down in law. The provincial government subsidises regional public transport, and also manages the integrated public transport system (which integrates the fares and time-tables of public and private operators). The municipalities manage local public transport in their area, and have considerable powers to promote local public transport. In those cities that have combined district and municipal status, public transport is considered the responsibility of the municipality. The problem with the responsibilities for public transport set out here is that coordination and financing are shared between different authorities, thus requiring joint working.
Funding for public transport comes from four main sources:
- fares
- general municipal funds
- national tax allocations
- revenues from parking fees.
At present the cost coverage for public transport varies from 40-60%, though in some rural areas it falls below 30%.
Alternative Modes: Facilities for walking and cycling are dependent on the level of road they are on, with responsibilities being determined by the road authority; thus municipal authorities have the right to pedestrianise their streets, establish cycle lanes, etc.
Alternative means of transport are generally regulated by federal laws, though some provinces are particularly active in promoting such schemes, and communities are becoming increasingly active in implementing them.
Land Use: The competencies for land use planning lie with each different level of government. However, the federal government's role is largely that of advice and coordination. The provinces develop land use policies and plans at both regional and sub-regional level. The municipalities develop zoning plans, which include land reserved for transport use. Provinces also have considerable control over building and housing, along with parking allocation. The division of responsibilities between different sectors means that coordination of spatial planning and its integration with transport planning often suffer.
Environment: Laws on environmental standards are set down at the national level, though it is the responsibility of provincial governments to implement them.
Barriers to policy implementation
While Austria has set positive standards for the introduction of alternative transport modes, reduction in car use, and modal shift, these targets have not always been met. The difficulties that have been encountered by municipal authorities in implementing these measures are based around the complex distribution of responsibilities between the three different levels of government. This is particularly problematic for the integration of transport, land use and environmental policies, as well as sustainable transport measures.
At the national level, the initial phases of the Austrian Transport Master Plan of 1991 are still being implemented. However, if these measures are implemented in full, it should relieve some cities and villages from heavy traffic.
Some municipalities also under-utilise the competencies they have in implementing sustainable transport policies, eg. through development control, parking, walking and cycling measures.
The subsidies available for public transport are being decreased by central government, which will affect provincial and municipal government's ability to support these services, even if improvements in efficiencies are made through increased competition in the public transport market.
Graz; background information
The population of Graz and its region is 0.24 million.
In 1997 there were around 93 million passengers on the local public transport network, of which 39 million are on the buses; information is not available for each of the other modes. The cost coverage from fares was78%, a further 5% came from subsidies, with the final 17% coming from other commercial sources.
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