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DETERMINED TO SUCCEED - A REVIEW OF ENTERPRISE IN EDUCATION: EVIDENCE REPORT

3. WHAT? THE CURRICULUM AND ITS OUTCOMES

THE CURRICULUM MODEL

The clearest statements of what is to be understood by Education for Work and Enterprise are to be found in the support materials from Learning and Teaching Scotland and the HMI of Schools (HMIS) ¹ Report on Education for Work in Schools (Scottish Executive 2000) and the related Implementation Pack. Details of these documents are given in the reference section at the end of the Report. The recommended inputs with some additions and anticipated outcomes are summarised in Diagram 3.1. This is based on the HMIS recommendation on 'entitlements' which are explained in greater detail in Annexe 7. Other inputs are included in the diagram to take account of the fact that when young people are making sense of the world, it is not only school which contributes to this sense-making process. This is particularly relevant in respect to developing attitudes and values and making life choices.

In Education for Work: Education-Industry Links - A National Framework work is related to paid employment, self-employment and unpaid forms of work. Education for Work is presented as -

".... one of the key purposes of the curriculum, enabling and preparing young people to:

• face the challenges of life in a rapidly changing society
• live successful lives both now and in the future
• operate confidently and effectively in the changing world of work and the flexible labour markets of the future.

Education for Work is about much more than vocational preparation. It is also an essential part of lifelong learning for living" (SCCC 1999a p 2).

¹ Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Schools (HMIS) became Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education (HMIE) with effect from 1 April 2001. They operate as an executive agency of the Scottish Executive.

Inter-relationship of curricular priorities

The HMIS Report emphasises that Education for Work is one of the priorities or purposes of education which should be taught across all aspects of the curriculum, the others being Education for Personal and Social Development (PSD), Education for Citizenship and Core Skills. The overlap is seen particularly in reviewing the desired values, attitudes, dispositions and skills that are considered important in personal, social, community and working lives. A clear understanding of rights and responsibilities and effective use of personal and interpersonal skills is at the heart of Personal and Social Development, Education for Citizenship and Education for Work and Enterprise. A recently published document Education for Citizenship in Scotland: a Paper for Discussion and Development (LTS 2002) outlines approaches to providing combinations of learning experiences within the daily life of the school and in discrete areas of the curriculum, principles which apply equally to EfWE and PSD.

DIAGRAM 3.1 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION FOR WORK AND ENTERPRISE PROGRAMMES

An increasing emphasis is being put on Financial Education as it applies in personal, social and business life. Initiatives are in place to promote Financial Education and clearly enterprise and entrepreneurial activities involving managing budgets and the necessity to remain solvent can contribute to financial understanding.

A danger of labelling parts of the curriculum is that they are dealt with separately and there is failure to make the necessary connections in the areas of overlap. We come back to this point below in the section 'Making sense of it all'.

Need for clarification

In both the written consultation exercise and in the survey of secondary schools, some respondents encompassed all aspects of the model while others tended to refer to parts rather than the whole. This to some extent reflects the respondents' experience and few schools deliver the model in its entirety. An aspect highlighted as needing clarification is the relationship between education for Personal and Social Development, Career Education and other Education for Work activities including enterprise. Personal and Social Education is listed as an entitlement which contributes to Education for Work but as noted above it is also a purpose of education which should be addressed across the curriculum. In practice in most secondary schools, there is a timetabled slot called Personal and Social Development or some similar title, and it is within that slot that Career Education takes its place, along with other personal development issues. The new Career Education Framework (LTS 2001) is designed to complement the Education for Work: Education Industry Links - a National Framework, but it is clear that they share outcomes in terms of skills and attitudes.

A recommendation to emerge from the consultation process, from across the full spectrum of respondents, was the need for a clearly articulated, progressive curriculum framework, with definition of the essential components and their interrelationship. There is need for a clear understanding for the relationship between Career Education, enterprise activity and other aspects of Education for Work.

In particular the business community was keen to have a framework which was expressed in terms they could understand and use to help them develop relationships with schools, contribute to the school curriculum and against which they could evaluate their contributions. CBI Scotland commented on the lack of use amongst business of the existing Education for Work: Education Industry Links - a National Framework, even though it had been intended for use both in schools and in businesses.

EVIDENCE OF GOOD PRACTICE AND EFFECTIVENESS

This section summarises evidence considered by the Review Group from visits, the written consultation, research and literature including practice in Scotland and elsewhere. This section can only highlight key points; it is not possible to provide much of the rich detail that is available in research and other documents. The main sources used are identified in the reference section. While some consideration will be given to each aspect identified as part of the EfWE curriculum, by far the greatest emphasis given by consultees and providers of evidence was on enterprise approaches and on work experience. This is reflected on the space allocated to them in this report. The topics are dealt with in the order in which the entitlements are presented in the HMIS Report.

Skills Development

Core Skills development is identified as a key entitlement for all pupils which contributes to Education for Work and Enterprise, and EfWE activities are seen as an opportunity to contribute to the development of skills. The development of skills permeates the whole curriculum and should be achieved through all subjects and all other aspects of school life. In summary core skills are:

• communication skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing, visual and non-verbal)
• the ability to work confidently with numerical information
• Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills
• the ability to work well with others
• problem solving skills, including the ability to frame one's own questions and problems rather than depending on others to define them.

The view that education has failed to prepare young people adequately for work and that young people do not have the skills and qualities required by employers has a long standing history. Literature from the 1920s reveals employer criticisms of school leavers' literacy and numeracy, character and attitudes; reports from the 1970s indicate that employers were "appalled" at "the quality of school leavers' technical skills, their basic numeracy and literacy, their work attitudes, social skills and appearance"; in reports from the 1980s complaints still related to literacy and numeracy as well of issues of reliability, discipline and character; in a study Towards Employability in 1996 school-leavers are characterised as "being deficient in initiative, motivation and communication skills" (Rikowski 2001). More recently the CBI's In Search of Employability (1998) and CBI Scotland's Rethinking Scotland's Skill Agenda (2000) highlight the concern, despite major initiatives both within schools and for young people who have left school, that young people still lack the skills and qualities required by employers.

CBI Scotland in their submission to the Review recommend the adoption of the CBI's Employability Template and the development of an Employability Scorecard, which can be used by both schools and employers to assist in recognising skills and encouraging ongoing development (see Annexe 8). Clarification of what employers are looking for and how that relates to the existing core skills framework, as developed by the SQA and used in schools and by other education providers, would clearly be beneficial.

Young people may be leaving the school system without a functional level in some skills, but part of the problem may be that they have not learned to transfer them to work contexts. The Learning Gains research undertaken by Strathclyde University (Semple et al 2002) noted that young people did not generally associate core skills development as a learning gain from their Education for Work experiences, with the exception perhaps of working with others. In focus groups it was noted that for some "problem-solving is something you do in maths" and few associated it with practical problem-solving as part of teamwork. These findings are supported by a study of young people's development in personal effectiveness (Unwin and Wellington 2001). This study found evidence that students did not distinguish between skills and knowledge and did not see transfer of skills from one subject to another.

The transfer of skills from one context to another can be assisted by teaching transfer that is, by making explicit what the skills are and assisting understanding of how they can be used in other contexts, giving practice in using them in familiar and unfamiliar contexts. When making the transition to the workplace giving work-specific training in the use of skills assists transfer (Brown 1999; Cornford 1999). Further development of the 'Employability Template/Scorecard' concept as proposed by CBI Scotland may be beneficial.

The development of an Employability Skills Toolkit by the Conference Board of Canada was noted as an example of interesting practice. This is a resource developed jointly by business and education; it outlines a range of personal skills and qualities and provides a framework for self-assessment, which gives suggestions as to what the skills 'look like' and how they might be demonstrated at home, at school, at work or in the community (CBC 2001).

Connexions West of England has developed a Key Skills Log ... for learning and work and the National Foundation for Educational Research carried out an evaluation of its use in schools. The study involved key stage 4 students, which is equivalent to S3 and S4 in Scottish schools. The findings are cautious due the wide range of factors which influence young people's development at that stage, and the variable use of the Log in schools, but the evaluators suggest that the Key Skills Log and other similar resources (Work Experience Log and Progress File) assisted in the learning of skills. While students were more likely to have heard about key skills for the first time in the equivalent of Personal and Social Education/Career Education, after using the logs they were more likely to recognise that they developed them across a range of experiences including tutorial groups, work experience, Career Education, subject lessons and part-time work.

Integration of EfWE into subjects

It is considered important that work-related issues are not addressed in isolation but within the context of all subjects. Where work awareness is addressed in primary schools, it is by and large within the context of teaching other subjects (see below under heading 'Career Education and Personal and Social Education'). An audit of primary schools undertaken by the Schools Enterprise Programme suggests that where primary schools run enterprise projects, only about 18% of projects are not either embedded in the curriculum or have a cross-curricular focus. The majority of enterprise activity in primary schools is related to the other subjects that are being taught.

Support materials from Learning and Teaching Scotland for secondary schools include subject guides with suggestions of how to make the subjects work-relevant, including career information, the work environment and links to business and wealth creation. In response to the secondary schools survey some schools provided evidence of having audited the curriculum. However, the number was small with 16 schools (8% of sample) providing evidence of auditing and 22 schools (11% of sample) indicating they had used the guides.

Although the guides refer to entrepreneurial activities, this is in terms of mentioning career opportunities with no clear guidance to show staff how to make this link. No evidence was found of the use of enterprise projects within subject areas other than Home Economics, Business Studies and Social and Vocational Skills and more rarely Craft and Design and Technology Education. For example, there were no examples of enterprise activities being used to enhance the teaching and learning process in geography or science. At Bathgate Academy, the Review Group saw an enterprise project which was supported by cross-curricular teaching, in other words aspects of activity required to complete the project were undertaken in different classes by different teachers, for example, mathematics and computer studies.

There is clearly much development required in secondary schools for enterprise approaches to be introduced and embedded within the teaching of other subjects.

Career Education and Personal and Social Education

Career Education has tended to be seen as part of the secondary school curriculum and as such was not previously seen as an entitlement within Primary Schools. However, the new Career Education Framework (November 2001) covers all stages pre-5 to 18. Career Education should nurture the development in knowledge and understanding, skills and attitudes in respect to:

• awareness of self
• awareness of opportunity
• understanding career decision making
• understanding transitions.

* Primary Schools

In Primary schools the focus is primarily on learning about people and their jobs and what they do. At later stages it may include understanding the role of business and different types of business. Activities in which primary schools engage are often included as topics in environmental studies, such as 'around my school and town', 'people who help us', 'rivers and forests', 'fishermen', 'the airport' and 'transport'. Links are also made to social subjects, science and technology.

Examples provided via the consultation included a school which arranged visits to the school from, for example, a dance specialist, waiter, police and dental nurse who are questioned about their jobs and career choices, as well as relating this to other relevant learning such as road safety and health issues. Another Primary School reported that they link all environmental topics to the kinds of jobs involved and keep a list of parents' jobs so they can be invited to talk to pupils. Back School in Stornoway gave examples of inviting a journalist and paper editor to talk about their jobs when the young people were planning a newspaper.

The extent to which such activities occur across all primary schools in Scotland is unknown. Some indication is to be found in the HMIS Inspection Report on Education for Work in schools, which noted that "the primary schools inspected for the task displayed many strengths in their programme in education for work. In contrast, only about one primary school in six in the general inspection programme indicated that it offered clearly defined activities in education for work" (Scottish Executive 2000). It also noted that only a few schools made use of the careers service (now Careers Scotland).

* Secondary Schools

In secondary schools, Career Education is usually addressed within the broader heading of Personal and Social Education. Evidence from both the consultation process and the secondary schools survey indicates that Career Education is viewed as a major component of Education for Work and that all secondary schools have provision of varying kinds. The Learning Gains research indicates that after work experience, the most reported Education for Work activities were using the career library (88%), discussing future employment opportunities (68%) and having an interview with a careers adviser (66%) (Semple et al 2002).

In addition to these activities schools reported a range of events designed to enhance awareness, decision-making and preparation, for example careers fairs, visiting speakers from business and other organisations, industry awareness days, games and simulations and mock interviews. The most frequently mentioned external organisations were Businessdynamics, Construction Industry Training Board (CITB), Young Engineers and Women into Science and Engineering. Evidence was presented to the Review Group of large businesses who have developed specific programmes to enable young people to prepare for work and to be assessed in relation to work skills using assessment centres. These present schools in their area with additional valuable opportunities for young people.

A major focus for Career Education is making young people aware of opportunities for further study and links with colleges and universities were mentioned as important.

One of the key findings of Learning Gains, substantiated by evidence from the school survey, was that not only did provision of these opportunities vary between schools, it varied within schools, so that not all pupils had access to the same range of activities. Some activities tended to be linked to certain subjects; others only allowed a few selected pupils to take part; additionally attendance was often voluntary and so only the pro-active opted in.

Pupils' views as to how useful Career Education had been in helping them know about opportunities and making choices have been drawn from across a range of research, sources of which are noted in the references. In broad terms this varied from those who were disillusioned with school, not helped by careers and guidance provision, and put off by work experience, to those who found everything helpful, with combinations of positive and negative responses to the different elements of provision.

• Many young people thought they knew 'little' or 'nothing' about job opportunities, available training and running their own business.
• Those who had already developed ideas about what they want to do are more likely to have an interview with the Careers Service (now Careers Scotland) and benefit from it. This is thought to be because they were more proactive.
• Those who were most likely to find their interviews useful were high attainers, who had a positive opinion of their experience of Career Education, had a positive attitude to school, and had had discussions with parents.
• Some of the young people only had limited interest in careers while at school and some felt too young for careers advice. Even having left school, some did not know what they wanted to do, but would decide later having had more experience.
• Some views suggested that guidance teachers were less aware of training based opportunities than academic progression routes and were less interested in those who were not staying on at school.
• Some thought that guidance teachers did not have time to provide useful vocational information, as their role focused on concerns about attendance, pastoral care, discipline
  and subject choice.

This presents a mixed view of how effective Career Education is in helping young people know about work and help them to make choices. These choices are extremely complex and are influenced by many life factors outside of school. This is considered below in 'Other influences'.

In broader terms, the Scottish School Leavers Survey sought views on the extent to which "School taught me things that would be useful in a job". In 1992, 59% of school leavers agreed with this statement; in 1994 64% of leavers agreed. 74% of those who completed S4 in 1996 agreed with it (Courtney and Lynn 2000 p 26), and 77% of those who completed S4 in 1998 agreed. (There was a change in data collection in 1996 which may account for the larger increase between 1994 and 1996, but generally increasingly positive responses over time are evident.) This was supported by contributions of young people in focus groups many of whom thought that school was doing as much as it could to prepare them for work, though of course there was some dissatisfaction.

* Special schools

Where the degree of learning disadvantage did not preclude young people from work, special schools had in place extensive careers programme and preparing students for employability was of major importance. Some mentioned the vital role played by the careers service in this. Views from the special school sector suggested that better networking between schools for sharing best practice would be one of their main priorities for enhancing provision.

Enterprise Activities: Enterprise Ethos

Views were expressed in the consultation that some schools created an enterprise ethos through involving pupils and staff, together, in planning and decision making. In some of the schools visited it was clear that all teachers were encouraged to identify and seize opportunities for involving pupils to encourage their creativity and be enterprising, for example, a teacher's readiness to see events which were happening anyway as an opportunity for an enterprise project. Cornton Primary School was an example visited by the Review Group. It was considered that such schools were more likely to engage in specific enterprise approaches and activities, and that value would be placed on all kinds of achievement and success. The young people who were involved in focus group discussion for the Review noted the importance of this. They were asked about ways in which schools might encourage a culture of enterprise. They felt that schools could help by encouraging them to talk about their own strengths and achievements; they thought that teachers could focus more on their achievements and less on their failures and that there was a need for all pupils to have their achievements and progress recognised, not just the best in the class or year.

Enterprise Activities and Enterprise Learning

We have noted that enterprise learning represents particular approaches to teaching and learning, which are based on sound pedagogical principles. These include situated learning in authentic contexts, learner-centred methods, interaction, collaboration and reflection. In other words, it is 'learning by doing' and then 'reflection on practice'. These principles can be embedded in the teaching of all subjects.

In the written consultation, evidence gathering and in the literature enterprise is used to cover a wide range of activities. Generally anything to do with raising money for any purpose, either for the school or good causes, is defined as enterprise. That is appropriate as such activities encourage a sense of responsibility and provide meaningful, active experience for young people, contributing to the development of enterprising skills. Addressing community and charity needs are an important element of citizenship education and personal and social development. They develop the sense of community enterprise with social goals, where profits are for the benefit of others, not an end in themselves.

The Review Group has used the term entrepreneurial for activities which replicate the running of a business to distinguish this approach from more general enterprise activities and events. Therefore, entrepreneurial activities feature the development of a business plan, raising finance, financial management and risk-taking, with the clear purpose of making a profit. Such activities and programmes have a focus on market principles and how businesses operate within the wider economy.

This distinction is not always clear in the literature or people's responses, though 'mini-enterprise' and 'company model' are sometimes used to refer to the entrepreneurial approach. The summary of evidence presented here has not separated out different activities, though it does refer predominantly to entrepreneurial activities.

Effectiveness of Enterprise Activities

Enterprise activity has been a feature of Scottish schools for some 20 years in primary, secondary and special schools. The Review Group had the opportunity to see examples of good practice in each of these sectors and the evidence of benefits is compelling.

The evidence summarised here is from a range of sources, all of which are identified in the reference section of the report.

The following benefits are reported:

• Pupils gain confidence, learning to identify their own and others' strengths and weaknesses; they learn to take responsibility for their own decisions.
• Some pupils develop and display new skills like organising themselves and others, and relating to adults in a mature way; one consultee emphasised the "very real experience of dealing with complaints".
• Some pupils display previously unrecognised qualities and so gain personal satisfaction and peer group status.
• Pupils learn about business and the commercial world.
• Where the project is based on a product or service they become aware of the "absolute necessity to remain solvent", and at very least to break even. Where the project has an environmental or community focus they learn about controlling resources, including finance.

In relation to secondary school programmes, young people identified the following gains:

• The main learning gains both in terms of skills and knowledge were working with others/team work and communication skills; learning to deal with conflict was challenging and valuable; managing of time, tasks, and people was seen as important.
• Knowledge gains were related mainly to how businesses operate and marketing.
• The main attitude or personal gains were in relation to gaining confidence and discovering new abilities.
• Enjoyment of working with others was a dominant aspect of learners' evaluation of the exercise.

Overall, enterprise activities generated enthusiasm, motivation and commitment, borne out of the desire to succeed. Working with business advisers, and other non-teachers added to the interest and enthusiasm, providing alternative role models.

Some limitations were also noted:

• Teachers can find it difficult to stand back and allow pupils to take control; balance between providing appropriate advice and taking a realistic 'hands-off' approach is difficult.
• Some views were expressed in primary projects that parents and others "are obliged to purchase sub-standard goods" and this does not give children a realistic view of the value of products and customer care issues.

The following limitations were noted particularly in relation to secondary schools

• Understanding and managing finance was found to be difficult and, in discussion, some young people admitted that they had not had to face the full costs of running their company (eg cost of premises), nor fully address the issues of wages and sharing of profits.
• An issue of concern from viewpoint of all participants is the amount of time required and the amount of time available to run companies. The activities are often run in lunchtimes and after school. Preparation for examinations and other school work took priority.

* Limited opportunity

The major weakness however is the limited opportunities that young people have to participate in enterprise activities.

The audit carried out on behalf of the Schools Enterprise Programme gives some indication of levels of activity in primary schools in 2000/2001. It should be noted that not all parts of the country are included due to non-returns from certain areas and the data should be seen as a rough guide. There was a 28% response rate.

• During 2000/01 about one-quarter of classes in the responding schools had taken part in an enterprise activity, representing over 25,000 young people (between 20% and 25% of the school rolls).
• About one-fifth of schools had a policy for enterprise education.
• Almost three-quarters aspired to ensure that each child had at least one enterprise experience; less than half had plans to make sure that it happens.

In secondary schools there is variable provision in S1 to S4, with enterprise activities tending to be related to specific subjects, for example, home economics, business studies, and, less frequently, craft and design, and technology. Social and Vocational Skills is seen in some schools and education authorities as providing a suitable opportunity to complete an enterprise project. Many schools involve pupils in half to one-day challenges which introduce the idea of enterprise in a competitive environment, for example the 'Cookie Challenge'.

Participation in enterprise activity at senior school levels is likely to be on a voluntary basis. While around half of the schools who responded to the secondary school survey mentioned the Young Enterprise Scotland company programme many indicated that no more than 8 or 10 pupils were involved.

The survey results suggested that about one-third of schools were introducing enterprise activity at more than one stage in the school programme, though only a small number of these had programmes which allowed all pupils to take part in an enterprise activity. The review of enterprise activity in secondary schools completed by the National Centre: EfWE suggests that in a year group as few as 5% and as many as 25% can be involved. Of the total sample in the Learning Gains research (245 pupils in S4 to S6 from 5 schools) about 10% had had experience of enterprise activities. Overall, it is estimated that around 10% of pupils in secondary schools have the opportunity to take part in enterprise activities.

* Main external providers and their contribution

The external providers of entrepreneurial activities, mentioned in the secondary schools survey, were Young Enterprise Scotland (YES), 'Achievers International' and Careers Scotland (previously Scottish Enterprise) with 'Get into Enterprise' (GiE).

• YES indicates that they are operating in 70% of schools. In 2001/02 around 6,900 young people were involved, representing 9% of the S5-S6 year group. The most common activity is the company model, but a small business/business start-up approach has just been launched. YES offers the chance to sit an examination and is supported by annual awards. Financial support is primarily from the private sector and the programme is dependent on business involvement and support. They also provide information to encourage achievers to access The Princes' Scottish Youth Business Trust (PSYBT), Shell LiveWIRE and the Small Business Gateway service.
• Achievers International supports a programme which is based on importing and exporting. Groups of students form an import-export company and they are linked to a partner school in another country with which they exchange goods and sell them on behalf of their partner. The communications are carried out by email, fax and telephone. Success depends on the effective use, and the stability of the technology. It also depends on having an active trading partner. In 2001/02 50 schools in Scotland participated with some 1100 pupils. The programme is expanding to include primary schools.
• GiE can be used as a stand-alone activity, or it can be integrated into Business Studies or Social and Vocational Skills. This is designed as a series of 12 modules which can be used flexibly, and is now available online. It is also used in colleges as part of vocational courses, and with social inclusion partnership groups. Figures from Careers Scotland indicate that 219 schools are involved in GiE. During 2001/02 over 780 pupils were registered.
• All of these programmes require the participants to raise finance to establish their businesses. In some cases they may receive a grant or loan for pump priming purposes or have an agreement with banks to allow an overdraft on a special account. This money is made available on the basis of the production of a viable business plan. At the end of the project, once taxes, loans and shareholders have been paid, the young people can choose how they spend their profits.

During 2001-2002 'Enterprise Insight' ran a series of regional events which included enterprise challenges culminating in the national final, the 'Braveheart Challenge'. These events, however, include only selected pupils. During the year over 400 secondary pupils and over 5000 primary pupils took part or attended.

* A Note on Special Schools

Only a small number of special schools responded to the consultation exercise and the schools survey. The focus of responses was the importance of providing a curriculum that was relevant to the needs of each individual young person. Enterprise education was valued in particular to encourage independence and helping young people take responsibility and make choices for themselves. Activities like running tuck-shops, cafes, active participation in the school fair and other events, for example a Puppet Show were mentioned. Making and selling cards and crafts were also mentioned. One school mentioned involvement in Achievers International, one mentioned using 'Get into Enterprise' and one mentioned participating in a YES programme along with pupils from a mainstream school. The Review Group visited Glencryan School where in the senior school young people learn in the Life Skills Unit where skills and subjects such as English, maths, science, languages and expressive arts are delivered through enterprise and education for work.

* Other Examples

Of particular note from North America are examples where young people are encouraged to run their own real businesses alongside attending school. In other words, the businesses they start are not necessarily wound up by the school nor do they have a limited project lifespan. If successful, the young people run them as their own money-earning ventures. During the visit to Boston, members of the Review Group saw this in practice at John D O'Bryant School of Mathematics and Science. The programme was based on a joint effort with the school, the Private Industry Council and the National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship. To make this possible, a small amount of capital is made available to each young person to start their enterprise. This allows them the opportunity to develop an interest or hobby into a money-making venture. Another US example is to be found in 'Enterprise High Schools' where programmes allow young people to combine their academic learning with running their own small businesses. Students spend 50% of their day on academic study and 50% on running their enterprise, with each day beginning and ending with a group or quality circle meeting (Shuttleworth 1997 p20).

The Centre for Entrepreneurship Education and Development in Nova Scotia provides numerous programmes to support entrepreneurship education in schools. One of note here is the 'Venturing through an Integrated Curriculum - Profit by Learning' which allows students to achieve high school credits while engaging in entrepreneurial activities.

In Norway, it was observed that young people on vocational programmes participated in Young Enterprise and set up companies which were related to their areas of study, for example pupils on an electronic industries placement were running an electronics repair business.

An interesting example for primary schools is the Primary Enterprise Programme (PrEP) in New Zealand, which is being piloted in Dumfries and Galloway. It links citizenship and enterprise through the formation of a mini-society in which pupils form a government, hold jobs and have market places for goods and services. It is designed to help them understand the basics of governance in democratic societies and the functioning of the market system.

Attitudes towards entrepreneurship

Taking part in enterprise and entrepreneurial activities appears to engender in young people positive attitudes towards business and entrepreneurship. Questions asked of young people at Enterprise events show positive views. At the Young Enterprise Scotland Annual Conference 2002, attended by over 500 young people, 60% indicated that having run a company through YES, they would consider starting their own business. 87% thought becoming an entrepreneur was a good thing. 77% of young people who took part in Enterprise Insight showcases during 2001/02 thought that one day they would like to own their own business (though it should be remembered that the majority of these were of primary age).

Turning this positive perception into reality is of course a quite different prospect. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some young people have changed their choice of subjects for further study to business on the basis of taking part in running a company while at school, and some 10% of young people at the Young Enterprise Scotland conference did suggest that their experiences had led to them to change their minds about their careers (though from what, to what is not known). However, in the evaluation of the Northern Ireland Young Enterprise Programme the experience appeared to have little influence on career/occupational choices as by the time they took part in an enterprise project many had already made decisions about their future. While it may have raised awareness of potential of starting a business and possibly aspirations, few had plans to actually start a business. In the Northern Ireland evaluation ex-Achievers who would be about 25 years old were contacted, and of the 74 who responded, two were self-employed.

Research into attitudes of young people for the Davies Review in England showed that there was little evidence of anti-enterprise or anti-entrepreneur attitudes. However, their own career aspirations did not align with becoming entrepreneurs themselves (Davies 2002 p 34).

Work Experience

Within schools work experience is often managed as part of Career Education. However, it is listed as a separate entitlement in the HMIS Report, and it is being allocated a separate section in this report, due to the emphasis given to it in the review process. It was an issue which was addressed by all parties involved - pupils, teachers, parents, education authorities and business representatives. It is the most frequently experienced education for work activity; it is valued by the majority of pupils, staff and employers who participate.

The majority of schools aim to make this a provision for all in S4 (or S3 in some schools), with additional opportunities in S5 and S6 for those pupils who want to pursue the opportunity, often negotiated by the pupils themselves. It is usually for one week, though in S5 or S6 it may be for two or three weeks. Some schools build extensive learning programmes around work experience. A small number of schools are involved in European work placements, giving pupils studying foreign languages the opportunity to work in a European country, gaining both work experience and language practice. An example was seen by the Group at Grange Academy in East Ayrshire. Evidence was also presented of companies who have carefully planned programmes to support work experience, for example, Standard Life, and the hospitality industry in the Glasgow area. Some employers see this as an opportunity of giving young people a good impression of their industry, and hopefully attracting suitable young people as future employees.

Work experience may also include short visits to see some aspect of a businesses operation, possibly to link into taught aspects of a subject. Senior pupils may take part in job-shadowing, to gain insight into different types of job roles or be mentored by business people. These occur much less frequently than the one-week placement. For example in the schools survey one-fifth of schools mentioned job-shadowing for some pupils.

The most reported learning gains from work experience by young people were understanding real workplaces and working with other people. In particular, they liked being treated as adults and being given responsibility; receiving praise gave them confidence. However, they did not like uninteresting jobs or menial tasks. It was most effective where there was good briefing and debriefing, when there was more than one opportunity to take part, and where employers took an interest in and helped the learner.

Views expressed by the young people suggest that while work experience might act as a trigger to make them think about their future, it rarely influences their choice of career. In the Learning Gains research none of the pupils mentioned that work experience had given them more career ideas or extended their career possibilities. However, it was suggested that, for some, it helped them understand the importance of doing well at school (Semple et al 2002).

* Limitations identified by other key players (teachers, business people and parents):

• Some placements are boring and do not give young people tasks which develop responsibility (eg shelf-stacking and photocopying).
• There is little evidence that young people relate learning from work experience to their school subjects, though teachers had hoped this would be an outcome.
• Some schools reported difficulty in finding enough suitable placements especially in rural areas.
• It was not possible to place young people in organisations which reflect their aspirations and interests and meet the realities of the local job market.
• The preceding two points incurred costs of travel and sometimes accommodation and disruption to normal life to enable suitable work experience.
• Pressure was experienced by making it an 'entitlement' for all as it promoted quantity over quality.
• Some schools reported that, following the McCrone agreement, some teachers were unwilling to work beyond 35 hours and this has meant that pupils are not visited on placement.
• The restrictions of health and safety requirements were mentioned frequently by both schools and business, though at least two education authorities took responsibility for ensuring that this aspect was dealt with.
• Some business people commented on the lack of readiness of young people when they come on work experience.
• Some small businesses found it difficult to support young people for a week due to lack of availability of supervisory staff, and the associated record keeping and reporting was considered to be excessive.

* What would improve work experience:

Some suggestions have been made for improvement:

• Pupils and others thought it would be more useful if it could be for longer than one week or happen more than once.
• Issues of planning and support need to be carefully addressed.
• Activity undertaken while in business placement should relate to solving of real problems. Work experience should be built into a wider project on understanding, for example workplaces, business structures, the local labour market.
• Placement in small businesses could focus on the issues of self-employment and starting and running a business.
• Voluntary organisations and community enterprises give valuable experience to young people. Greater efforts should be made in extending work experience beyond commercial and industrial sectors.
• Young people preparing for further and higher education leading to professions, such as medicine, would benefit from opportunities related to their prospective careers and indeed were often required to do this by the higher education institutions prior to acceptance. A more structured approach with the support of the HEIs and professions would be valuable.
• In certain areas placements could be linked to industry/business sectors where there are skills shortages.
• The model of central co-ordination of placements by the education authority, or local Careers Scotland office (formerly the Education Business Partnership) to provide liaison between schools and businesses and to address the health and safety issue is supported by some.
• It is important that there is appropriate briefing and debriefing and opportunities for reflection and discussion to help young people articulate and so recognise the learning that has occurred. This is important to help them to link work-experience to other aspects of learning.

* Special Schools

Where special schools had young people who had the potential for work, suitable work experience was considered to be very important. In Glencryan School, visited by the Review Group, carefully planned work experience in S4, S5 and S6 is based on effective matching of appropriate opportunities provided by local employers to the specific skills, attributes and needs of the young people. However, there is an indication that for some schools, it is difficult to find sufficient employers who can make the kind of commitment which is necessary to provide work experience for young people with learning difficulties.

* Part-time work

Increasing numbers of young people combine staying on at school and working, with the main purpose of earning money. In the Learning Gains study 63% of the young people reported having part time work, 53% in S4, 63% in S5 and 88% in S6. The Scottish School Leavers Survey reported that 38% of S4 pupils had part-time work and 44% of S5 pupils (Courtney & Lynn 2000 pp 35, 47).

Learning from part-time work was similar to the points identified from work-experience. However, their part-time work gave young people the time to practise at becoming good at things, learning how to handle things, gaining confidence, dealing with more difficult tasks and problems (Semple et al, 2002).

Employers recognised the benefits of part-time work. Those surveyed in the Learning Gains research indicated that young people on work experience, who already had experience of part-time employment, were thought, amongst other things, to show more initiative, have greater insight into what was required, be better at dealing with the public and be more mature. This of itself suggests that real work is more effective in developing desirable skills and attitudes, than short term work-experience, and adds support to the argument that work-experience needs to have some other clearly defined purpose. Discussions with some employers who took young people on both work-experience and also employed them on a part-time basis suggested that there is a commitment to use these opportunities to provide training for young people and to provide them with support for their next stage of development whether that be further study or employment. While this presented the Review Group with admirable examples of good practice by some employers, we do not know how widespread such commitment is amongst the business community.

Teachers expressed the greatest reservations about pupils participating in part-time work. This emerged both in the Learning Gains research and in the consultation process. Views were expressed that it is "a distraction from educational goals, far removed from the experience of adult employment in economic terms". There was a concern that it could damage exam performance.

Parents concerns largely reflected the extent to which some employers take advantage of and exploit this youth labour market.

Young people may wish to keep this totally separate from their school life; to 'educationalise' this experience might seem to them like an intrusion into their private, non-school world. However, it is worth exploring the potential of using these experiences in terms of vocational relevance and providing ways of helping young people to recognise and exploit the learning opportunities provided by their part time work. If it is seen to be valued by school, rather than opposed, it may help some to be less discontent with school experience.

* Other examples

Evidence from Boston Public Schools provided examples of the 'Jobs Collaborative' programme, facilitated by the Boston Private Industry Council, where young people work on a part-time basis while still completing their school studies on a part-time basis. Young people have real jobs, are supported by school in the job, and are paid for it while completing school. Finding models which allow school supported part-time working, which maximises the fact that many do work part-time already, is a challenge to be faced.

Vocational and work-based training

During the consultation, the Review Group was presented with views on the need to enhance the value placed on vocational subjects so that careers in trade and craft industries are appealing to young people. It is important that vocational subjects are seen as valuable as more academic subjects. Two approaches to including vocational training were highlighted during the Review process: one in direct collaboration with employers using work-based training, and one in collaboration with Further Education Colleges.

The first is exemplified by the Schools Corporate Vocational Training Programme being offered in Glasgow Secondary Schools to pupils in S3 and S4, in collaboration initially with the construction and hospitality industries. The second phase (2002/2003) will extend opportunity to include horticulture, administration, care, health and fitness and sport and recreation. Glasgow Education Authority, in collaboration with other council departments and the hospitality industry in Glasgow, has used the opportunity of curricular flexibility to offer work-based training to young people, leading to SVQ certification at level 2. This activity replaces one standard grade in the normal S3/S4 programme.

It is reported to be successful with pupils and supported by parents. Though it is too early to obtain evidence from evaluation, feedback suggests that benefits include positive impact on attendance, motivation and achievement. 750 young people in S3 have enrolled for this opportunity for 2002/2003. Including this new enrolment and those who were part of the original pilot and now progressing to their second year, Glasgow Education Authority indicates that about 20% of S3 and S4 pupils will be participating.

Dundee City Council working in partnership with Dundee College, Scottish Enterprise and local employers is planning a similar programme in pre-apprenticeship construction, though on a smaller scale.

Other projects highlighted include Northfield Academy in Aberdeen setting up an in-school hair-dressing salon for S3 pupils and offering accreditation at SVQ level 2 in conjunction with Aberdeen College. Many other examples were provided by colleges of courses offered to S3 and S4 pupils, either as 'tasters' or leading to certification at SVQ level 1 in practical subjects and this was seen as "offering a taste of more ... 'grown up' educational opportunities". The majority of FE colleges provide such opportunities for S3 and S4 pupils alongside their school based studies. A survey of secondary schools in Scotland (with about one-third of schools responding) carried out by NFER found that 44% of the respondents used part-time college courses with S3 and S4 pupils and 48% of respondents with S5 and S6 pupils (Kendall et al, 2001, p 39). The limited evidence available suggests that there are mixed responses by school pupils to these opportunities.

The Review Group also took account of Norway's vocational upper secondary schools where the later years follow the apprenticeship model and lead to a Trade or Journeyman's qualification. Examples were visited in Boston where young people can opt into vocational programmes in high schools which allow them to work with employers while completing their academic studies.

ASSESSMENT AND CERTIFICATION

Work Experience

Work experience is the aspect of EfWE most likely to be certificated. There is opportunity to provide certification within standard grade Social and Vocational Skills and also specific National Qualifications Work Experience units.

One third of schools enter young people in S4 for Social and Vocational Skills. About 6% of the year group have been entered every year for a number of years. In 00/01 this represented 3,500 young people.

In 2000/2001 about 21,500 young people were entered for Work Experience Units at Access 3 and Intermediate level 1 representing about 36% of the year group. There has been a decline in the number of centres and entrants since 1997/98 when 57% of the year group were entered for Work Experience modules. (Note in 1997/98 these were 'old' National Certificate modules, with the 'new' National Qualifications being introduced in 1999.)

A further opportunity for assessment is through the Life and Work Units. In 2000/01 there were 1,678 entries for this unit from schools, representing 2.8% of the S4 year group. Entries for this unit have also declined in recent years from 8.8% of the year group in 1997/98.

Discussions with work experience co-ordinators suggests that some found the process of preparation for assessment and certification too time consuming for both staff and pupils and other issues and responsibilities took priority. However, views presented via the written consultation suggested that assessment and certification would increase the value and importance of work experience.

Enterprise

Opportunity for assessment and certification of enterprise activity also occurs within standard grade Social and Vocational Skills. Some pupils may opt for an enterprise activity as part of the Business Management National Qualification at Intermediate 1 and 2.

There are also National Qualifications units which provide the opportunity for certification. Several units exist within the National Qualifications catalogue which might be suitable: Enterprise through Craft, Enterprise Activity, Considerations for Self-Employment, and Identifying Opportunities: Recognising Entrepreneurial Potential. These are new units, and only the first two of these has so far attracted a small number of entrants from schools.

Organisations like Young Enterprise Scotland have their own exam and award scheme, but these are not linked to the SQA framework. YES is also undertaking development of an online library of core skills assessment material, generic to any enterprise activity.

Skills

Within the Higher Still Developments and National Qualifications, core skills are embedded in the subject. All subjects and levels have been audited showing where particular skills apply (see Catalogue of Core Skills in National Qualifications 2001/2002, SQA 2001). When a pupil passes in that subject he/she is automatically given credit for the core skills at the appropriate level (Access 3, Intermediate 1, Intermediate 2, Higher and Advanced Higher) and this is noted on the certification.

While embedding skills in this way recognises the contextual nature of skills development, some problems have been noted:

• some pupils said they did not know they had been "put in for them"
• some objected because they only wanted subject passes recorded on the certificate
• some felt that the skills level was too low as they were credited with the skills at the level identified for the particular subject. Pupils felt they were capable of demonstrating higher levels in the skills than stated on the certificate.

Discrete core skill national units can be taken at certain levels - mainly Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2. For example 'working with others' is difficult to get within the subject curricula so this may be dealt with as a discrete unit for certification, to 'top-up' embedded skills, but there was no evidence available of the extent to which schools were entering pupils for discrete core skills units. It is recognised that work experience and enterprise activities provide opportunities for developing core skills, though as indicated above (p41), greater assistance is needed in making skills development explicit.

SQA in their response to the Review consultation were keenly aware of avoiding increasing the assessment burden in schools. During focus groups young people suggested that they did not want to be formally assessed on skills, but would welcome feedback as to their progress. This suggests that self-assessment, as supported by something like the Conference Board of Canada Employability Skills Toolkit, might be appreciated.

MAKING SENSE OF IT ALL - THE PLACE OF REFLECTION

A distinguishing characteristic of enterprise learning is that it is about 'doing'; it is a hands-on approach to learning which involves identifying and dealing with real problems and issues. The value of work experience is that it is experience; real work is real experience. The Learning Gains research identified that young people thought Education for Work and Enterprise could be improved by ensuring they were taking part, not just watching, for example, in developing interview skills.

A key aspect of experiential learning models is that you do not just 'do'; you also reflect on the doing to identify what you have learned. The Learning Gains researchers felt that involvement in the research itself assisted school students to identify learning gains through listening to the experiences of others or through having the chance to reflect and comment on their own total experience.

The study reported in Unwin et al, uses the following analogy. "Whilst teachers and curriculum designers view the curriculum as a well-constructed, well-designed edifice with different categories of building material (skills, knowledge, attitudes and understanding) in a carefully manufactured structure ... their students see it as pile of rubble" (Unwin & Wellington 2001 p86).

It is important that young people are given the time to think about what they are learning and that there is support to help them draw all the elements together to make the whole experience meaningful. This is important in relation to making sense not only of ostensible Education for Work and Enterprise inputs, but of making links to topics raised in Education for Personal and Social Development, Education for Citizenship, and relevant input from all subject areas. Some respondents to the written consultation recommended making more use of the Progress File for this purpose. The Progress File is a tool which helps pupils to record and analyse their own achievements and set themselves goals for the future. The effectiveness of the Progress File is still being evaluated; however, one respondent commented that young people are "turned off by (its) repetitious nature". Developing alternative approaches to self-evaluation and reflection is important.

YOUNG PEOPLE 'AT RISK'

The importance of reducing the number of young people not in education, employment or training (NEET) was noted in section 2, where reference was made to the fact that those most likely to be NEET had poor attainment at S4 and were more likely to have truanted. If it is possible to minimise disaffection and truancy while still at school, then, hopefully, non-participation later can be reduced.

The evidence presented here is from research undertaken into approaches to tackling the issue of disaffection. The findings are from the following studies:

• The National Foundation for Educational Research's research on provision for the disengaged in Scotland (Kendall et al 2001), which, in relation to schools, considered interventions from S1 to S6.
• Department for Education and Skill's Evaluation of New Approaches to Work-Related Learning (SWA Consulting 2002), which focused on 14 to 16 year olds (Key stage 4), and involved both project and comparator groups.
• The ENTRANCE Project which was a European Framework IV funded project designed to consider enterprise and its transfer to combat social exclusion. (ENTRANCE 2001).

Firstly, it is noted that young people who withdraw from school often have many personal problems with which they need help, before they can give attention to school work. However, in respect to school work, a key point in dealing with disengagement is to change or adapt the parts of the curriculum which have influenced dislocation. This includes changing the context of learning, adapting the content, adapting the approaches to teaching and learning and ensuring continuity of staff contacts. In these projects, the main changes involved learning in smaller, less regulated contexts, providing new environments, focusing on the young people's interests and increasing individual support. The emphasis was very much on active teaching and learning, including enterprise projects, vocationally relevant subjects, and developing positive personal relationships with adults other than teachers (Kendall et al 2001 p iii/iv, 3, 28/29; SWA 2002,
p viii).

Across all projects, the most reported gains for the young people were increased confidence and self-esteem. Most reported an increased awareness of potential either in terms of work or continuing at school or college. This was associated with recognition of skills not previously acknowledged and working with adults other than parents or teachers. More positive attitudes towards their own ability to take control of their own situations were reported.

Both the NFER and ENTRANCE Research report more positive attitudes towards school and/or further education with improved attendance, determination to succeed and gaining of both vocational and academic qualifications. The NFER research shows that for the younger groups increased involvement with the mainstream curriculum was reported. The DfES research suggested that while young people in the 14 to 16 age group became more positive about their new experiences and themselves, this did not extend to their view of school and there was a slight increase in students who felt that "schools is a waste of time for me". This may be because they saw the possibility of positive alternatives.

The NFER research reports improved attendance across a range of projects; the DfES evaluation did not identify improved attendance between project and comparator groups but did find that the project groups had fewer permanent exclusions, suggesting improved behaviour and more time in a learning environment.

It is also noted in the research that not all young people are prevented from dropping-out, but there is strong evidence that young people at risk can be helped through an alternative curriculum, which includes vocationally relevant opportunities and active, hands-on learning.

In the context of disadvantage, enterprise projects for those 'at risk' are valued because of the active approaches to teaching and learning and because of real life contexts. The specific business start-up focus of National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE) for disadvantaged groups is worthy of note. Evidence from Brandeis University research in USA suggests that, compared to non-NFTE control groups, 65% of the NFTE 'alumni' had at some point run a business compared with 2% of the control group, and 33% were still running a business at the time of the research, and earning enough to pay themselves a salary, while none of the control group did (NFTE p 10). The Nova Scotian Centre for Entrepreneurship Education and Development offers a programme called 'Second Chance - Starting over with Entrepreneurship' which is designed for youth "who have been in conflict with the law". It is based on the belief that "many young offenders possess misdirected entrepreneurial characteristics" and has the goal of assisting such young people to become self-sufficient, thereby reducing the possibility of unemployment and re-offending. In Scotland, Young Enterprise Scotland runs its programmes in young offenders institutions, and important customers for the Get into Enterprise programme are social inclusion partnership groups.

OTHER INFLUENCES

One of the most important influences which help young people gain an understanding of the world of work, namely part-time employment, has been discussed above in connection with work experience. However, other influences beyond school are also important in the attitudes young people develop towards both school and work and in the life choices which they make.

A finding highlighted in a literature review on young people's attitudes to education, employment and training was that "Young people's attitudes are subject to broad societal influences and parental and sibling attitudes, and reflect the noticeable time lags in changes in public attitudes" (Morris et al 1999 p 1).

Parents and guardians influence secondary school students in the following ways:

• "decisions about school/curriculum choices
• whether to stay on at school and aim for further/higher education
• the nature of working life and its expectations
• the gap between aspiration and expectations
• providing access to opportunities - local, national and international
• influencing motivation patterns - internal/external" (Murray 2001, p 11).

The Scottish School Leavers Survey asked respondents to think back to their time in fourth year when they were deciding what to do and to say who had influenced them and how helpful the advice had been. Parents were the most usual source of advice (93%) and their advice was most likely to be seen as helpful (88%). Next came the guidance teacher: 82% had received advice from this source, with 76% finding it helpful (Courtney & Lynn 2000 p 31). This is further confirmed by a study of school leavers in Fife which found that in all categories of post-16 destinations, young people had been influenced most strongly in their decision making by family, other relatives and friends (Canning and Mannion 2001).

Acknowledging the strength of parental, carer and other influences, both positive and negative in terms of educational outcomes, is important on two accounts. Firstly, in terms of directing young people towards specific careers or raising aspirations to consider self-employment, parents and carers themselves need to be informed of the importance of these options. Secondly, schools and teachers and indeed business partners, while they may inspire and direct many young people, are only part of the story.

CONCLUSION

The individual components which contribute to the purpose of Education for Work and Enterprise have value and assist young people in achieving the desired outcomes. There is potential for improvement in quality and in extent of delivery of all components. The challenge to each individual school is to build a coherent programme incorporating all elements to ensure that all pupils receive a core entitlement, with other activities and learning experiences appropriate to their needs. Above all else, it is vitally important that it makes sense to the learner alongside all other curricular inputs and expected outcomes.

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