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THE STATUS OF TRADITIONAL SCOTTISH ANIMAL BREEDS AND PLANT VARIETIES AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER SEVEN: AN OVERVIEW OF THE CONTRIBUTION MADE TO BIODIVERSITY OF MAINTAINING THE TRADITIONAL FARMING SYSTEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PARTICULAR BREEDS OF LIVESTOCK.
What is "Traditional"?
7.1 When considering traditional farming systems it is useful to try to define exactly what the term "traditional" means. The Oxford English Dictionary definition " That is such according to tradition" is not very helpful. "Tradition" is defined more usefully as " That which is handed down, a statement, belief or practice transmitted from generation to generation. More vaguely: a long established and generally accepted custom or method or procedure, having almost the force of a law".
7.2 In the context of farming systems it is therefore difficult to define a starting point where systems can be defined as the "tradition". Farming has over centuries evolved from the days when man was simply a hunter-gatherer, sustaining himself from what he could find or trap and/or kill. He began to cultivate crops around his settlements to provide nutrition for himself and for the wild animals he began to domesticate. Farming was born, and has evolved ever since. This evolution has continued largely as man has increased his understanding of his crops and animals, how they work and how they interact with the wider environment. This evolution has been most rapid in the last century, and particularly since the end of World War II.
7.3 Science has sought successfully to gain a much greater understanding of the processes which make up our agriculture, from the chemical and cellular level, right up to the catchment and landscape level of resolution. This has allowed much altered management of systems and the manipulation of the inputs to those systems. Those inputs also include the genetic resources, as animals and crops have been selected and crossed to encourage the traits desired for the production system. It therefore follows that there can be no definitive "traditional" system in an evolution. Also "traditional" implies looking always to the past. Man and society are ever changing, particularly the human population. Agricultural evolution has largely been a function of the changes in population and society.
7.4 It is easy to conceive of some supposed idyllic rural way of life in the past. The reality was often that "traditional" farming systems, as for example in the period between the two World Wars involved long hours of backbreaking work. There are many reports of life on Scottish farms during that period, but a short story by David Toulmin sums it up: " I widn'a be a loon again" (Toulmin, 1992).
7.5 Instead of just looking at "tradition", it is perhaps appropriate to think more broadly. The objectives society sets for agriculture are, as they always have been, changing. Food production is no longer the only goal. The environmental impacts of agriculture are now extremely important. There is increasing pressure on farmers to reduce the undesirable impacts of their activities on the environment, and a willingness for society to pay for the more positive impacts of agriculture.
7.6 Systems from the past must be examined in relation to how they might, either wholly or in part, satisfy the objectives society now sets for agriculture. It is also important, however, to bear in mind the advances in understanding and consequently in management which have occurred. In short, it is important to look both forward and backwards in time and adapt what is appropriate from the past with the improvements in understanding and technology that are available now and are likely to be available in the future
7.7 Environmental sustainability and highly intensive agriculture are not always compatible. Because of this, many argue for a reduction in intensity in agriculture overall. Others have argued (Wilkins, 1994 and Pollock, 2000) that in the future there may be a polarisation of agriculture, with intensive agriculture continuing on the most favourable land, with high levels of inputs and using the latest technological advances, while on less productive land the objectives for land management may be more environmentally based. In these areas it is therefore likely that the future will involve lower stocking rates and the use of lower inputs.
The role of rare and traditional breeds in farming systems
7.8 Little research has been conducted into the role of rare and traditional breeds in farming systems. Much of the information in this section of the report was gathered at a workshop held at SCRI on 28
th November 2001. (For the objectives of the workshop and for a list of attendees see Appendix One and Two)
7.9 Those systems into which rare and characteristic breeds of cattle and sheep can fit and in which biodiversity can be maintained and enhanced, will vary with the location and the environmental goals which are desired. The level of stocking will have to take account of the range of objectives for the countryside and the environment.
7.10 The lowest intensity systems are generally those located in the hills and uplands. The climate, soils and topography in these areas combine to limit severely the choices open to the farmer in terms of agricultural production. As has been discussed earlier in this report, the grazing of these areas is important if the delicate ecosystems are to be maintained. A balance needs to be struck to ensure that the conservation objectives are met, while still providing economic return for those who farm such areas. The breeds commonly found in these areas have evolved and adapted over many years to survive in these harsh places. However it is not clear to what extent these breeds are an integral part of the farming system. While they undoubtedly form part of the cultural heritage of these areas, and their production characteristics may be suited to these environments it is not clear to what extent these breed characteristics contribute to the wider biodiversity associated with these systems. There is therefore a need for research to establish the role of rare and traditional breeds in contributing to wider biodiversity.
The need for cattle in hill and upland areas
7.11 There is some evidence that the range of habitats and the associated biodiversity which is desired cannot be achieved without the use of grazing by cattle. There are problems, however, in increasing the number of cattle on the hills to achieve the grazing management required for biodiversity purposes. Firstly, cattle have to be purchased involving the need to access capital. Replacement stock for traditional breeds will not be cheap. Cattle require management, and feed needs to be provided to avoid overgrazing in winter and to ensure acceptable levels of productivity and adequate animal welfare.
7.12 On some farms winter housing will be required, and this will need to be provided. On many farms where there are disused cattle buildings, these are often not suitable for today's low-labour systems. Outwintering in the absence of adequate buildings is a possibility, and this is where some of the native breeds may have an advantage. There does, however, need to be a better understanding and quantification of the characteristics of these breeds and to define how these characteristics appear to suit particular production systems. There is plenty of anecdotal evidence that our rare and characteristic breeds are very well adapted to low intensity systems, particularly in harsh climates. However there is little scientific evidence of why these adaptations occur.
7.13 Providing winter feed for cattle can be a problem on many hill farms because of the lack of land suitable for the conservation of fodder. Silage-based systems require the use of expensive machinery, and it still needs to be transported to the animals. Making hay can be labour intensive, and particularly in the west of Scotland, very risky due to bad weather. There also needs to be skilled labour available to look after the animals, particularly at calving time. One option is to have greater co-operation between upland and lowland farmers, whereby the stock can be wintered on lowland farms, where winter feeding can be more easily provided and then returned to the hills for the summer grazing period.
7.14 On the islands of Islay and Mull, Highland cattle are being used in very extensive grazing systems in order to maintain a particular ecosystem. Bignal et al (1998) argue that the grazing animals have too often been seen simply as tools for achieving environmental goals. Instead, they argue that the grazing system needs to be seen as part of a wider set of objectives which include social, economic and cultural goals. The whole farming system needs to be examined.
7.15 Historically the "Sheiling" system was adopted where hill cattle and sheep spent the summer away from the farm on more distant pastures. This meant that the land near the farm could be used for limited arable cropping and for haymaking. The livestock would then be returned to the in-bye land for over-wintering. Such a system allowed the desirable grazing of the pastures to control species such as purple moor grass and thus encourage biodiversity. It also allowed a measure of self sufficiency in terms of winter feeding with less reliance on bought-in hay and concentrates. However many farmers have abandoned such systems in favour of more intensive methods of production. Instead of using breeds like the Highland and Galloway, imported breeds are used. Silage is made from well fertilised swards composed of fast growing and late heading ryegrass monocultures rather that more species diverse swards.
Marketing of products from rare and traditional breeds
7.16 The economic viability of these low-intensity systems of farming in hill and upland areas is extremely fragile (Scottish Executive, 2001), particularly with the pressure to operate at world market prices. If these systems are to be used there needs to be not only financial support as a payment for the environmental benefits they provide, but there needs to be support and encouragement for novel marketing initiatives. These systems are not likely to fit easily into the industrial model of food production, processing and marketing. It is more likely that to make a reasonable economic return, the output from these systems will have to be marketed in a way which adds value, fully exploiting the "natural" perception of the product. It is within this context that the rare and characteristic breeds will have a role to play. The meat from these animals is already seen as a quality product, produced in a natural manner which is valued by consumers and this will have to be exploited more fully than in the past. To exploit the market to the best advantage, the infrastructure required to slaughter and process locally will need to be provided. Recent legislation has led to the closure of many local abattoirs, making local slaughter and processing, which adds value to the product, very difficult. Government and other agencies (local authorities, local enterprise companies) need to consider how best to assist in the development of marketing schemes which would not only help with the conservation of traditional and rare breeds but would also encourage rural employment and development.
Co-operation Between farmers
7.17 The way farmers operate their businesses will also require examination. A greater degree of co-operation between farmers is needed, particularly for finishing and marketing. Markets require consistency of product and continuity of supply in order to secure and retain a reliable customer base. Without co-operation between producers this will be hard to achieve with rare and traditional breeds. Traditional cattle breeds like the Highland, cannot be finished from hill swards in the time required. One option may be to finish the weaned calves on lowland farms on much higher quality diets and to use a different breed of bull to sire the calves in order to produce a quality finished steer at the time required by the market. One of the most successful co-operative marketing schemes is the certified Aberdeen Angus marketing scheme.
Pasture type
7.18 Even on the more intensive farms, the in-bye ground of hill farms and in the uplands there may need to be a re-evaluation of the production systems which are used. On these units sheep and cattle graze long- or short-term sown pastures. Where cattle are grazed, the breeds of cows used are often imported in origin, usually with an imported breed used as the terminal sire. These animals, while extremely productive require good quality diets to sustain those high levels of production. The roughage component of those diets is based on grazing very productive pastures in summer and high quality silage in winter. The pastures used are productive but are not species rich. They are based on modern varieties of perennial ryegrass perhaps with some white clover in the mixture. Since silage digestibility drops off rapidly when the sward starts to develop seed head, modern varieties of grasses have been bred to delay the onset of seed head formation until the crop has reached the appropriate stage for cutting. As a consequence these species-poor swards rarely get to the stage of being able to shed seeds which will return to the soil and spread in the wind.
7.19 A return to the traditional breeds with lower nutrient requirements and less intensive systems would perhaps allow hay to be made instead of silage. This would allow for more species-rich seed mixtures to be sown with a consequent increase in biodiversity. However a switch to hay making is not without problems. Haymaking is a fundamentally more risky operation, since the crop is exposed to the weather for a much longer period between cutting and being transported to storage. It is also less efficient in terms of the much larger dry matter losses during the haymaking process compared to silage making. Much of the leafy component (the most nutritious part of the plant) of the crop can be lost in haymaking. The resulting crop therefore is less valuable as a feed for productive animals. Research is needed on whether hay making may be integrated into grazing systems which use traditional breeds.
7.20 For cows and sheep which are spending much of the winter period on a maintenance diet, the feeding of hay is quite acceptable. However for stock which are expected to be gaining weight, silage is a much more desirable method of securing a winter fodder supply. Research needs to be conducted into how best to ensile species-rich swards, perhaps at a more advanced physiological stage than is usually used for silage.
Out-wintering of cattle
7.21 The out-wintering of cattle was at one time commonplace. However most intensive systems are now reliant on cattle being brought indoors during winter. Some of the hardier breeds are better adapted to remaining outdoors. If these breeds, such as the Highland, and the Galloway are to be used to promote biodiversity, research needs to be done to investigate the effects of year-round grazing compared to summer only.
Mixed livestock and cropping systems
7.22 Both sheep and cattle farms have tended over the last few years to specialise in grazing, relying on bought-in concentrate feeds, with less crops grown, especially on upland farms. The growing of crops like oats and barley for feed creates a further range of habitats and feed sources, especially for birds. Cereal growing has become highly specialised, relying on large machinery which is not well adapted to the hills and uplands. A return to more mixed systems, which could include the rare and traditional breeds would help to increase overall biodiversity. Systems-level research is needed to identify the potential gains in biodiversity which could be achieved from more mixed farming systems in the uplands.
Susceptibility to parasites
7.23 More extensive systems require less anthelmintics than intensive systems. It has been shown that some worming products, especially the invermectins, can pass through the animal and reduce the numbers of insects in the dung (Strong and Wall, 1994). This is important for the birds which habitually feed on insects found in animal dung. Investigations need to be carried out on the susceptibility of different breeds to internal, and perhaps external parasites to identify if some breeds are more resistant to parasites and require less use of anthelmintics.
Labour costs
7.24 The impact of the cost of labour should not be underestimated. Extensive systems of production, particularly with out-wintering are not easy to manage when labour is in short supply. Animals are brought inside, often because that is the most convenient way to manage them. The cost of in-wintering often means that highly productive animals such as the continental breeds are required to justify the large capital investment encouraging the use of high cost, high input and high output systems.
Conclusions
7.25 To help promote biodiversity, systems need to be designed which will achieve the goals which are set. As a first step in this process, the objectives for land management including the management of vegetation need to be clearly defined. These objectives will vary from place to place so the resulting systems will also vary. There is no one prescription which will cover all circumstances.
7.26 We also need to take into account changes in management practices which have occurred and developments in technology. The difficulties of implementing systems are often practical in nature and are related to labour or capital requirements. The sharing of machinery between farms and the pooling of labour for particular operations may become more important in the future.
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