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PART IV THE ENVIRONMENT ACT 1995 - LOCAL AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT - DRAFT REVISED POLICY GUIDANCE

Chapter 6 Air Quality and Transport

Background

6.1 Road transport is a major source of local air pollution, particularly in our towns and cities. In urban areas, road traffic accounts for a major part of the total emissions of nitrogen dioxide and particles (PM ₁₀) - the objectives for which are the most challenging to meet. This has been borne out by the fact that the three AQMAs in Scotland have been declared on the basis of transport-related NO ₂ emissions.

6.2 In 2001 there were over 1.9 million private and light goods vehicles licensed in Scotland, an estimated 25% increase since 1991. In 2000, 66% of Scottish households had access to a car, compared with 57% in 1990 ⁶. This steady increase in car ownership, together with the car's flexibility and convenience, has enabled more people to travel further, with a corresponding increase in vehicle usage.

6.3 Cutting road transport emissions is therefore a key part of LAQM. Local authority officers dealing with air quality duties should liase regularly with transport and planning colleagues, and the Scottish Executive where the pollution arises from trunk roads and motorways.

6.4 The Scottish Executive expects local authorities to ensure that the guidance in this chapter is taken into account by all relevant departments.

Scottish and UK context

6.5 The national policy framework has already led to significant improvements in local air quality and will continue to do so in the future. Key transport initiatives include:-

• Regulatory measures and standards to reduce vehicle emissions and improve fuels;

• Tax-based measures that encourage people to supply and use cleaner fuels and also encourage them to buy more environmentally-friendly vehicles; and

• The development of integrated transport strategies that support sustainable development.

Regulatory measures to cut vehicle emissions

6.6 The vehicles on our roads are becoming progressively cleaner due to the tighter EURO standards on vehicles/fuels imposed by the European Union's auto-oil programme, which was set up in partnership with the oil and motor industries. These standards alone helped reduce emissions of PM ₁₀ and NOx from road transport by 50% between 1990 and 2000 and are expected to lead to a further reduction of some 30% by 2010. Although not primarily concerned with reducing NO _x and PM ₁₀ emissions, the EU's voluntary agreements with car manufacturers may also lead to improved local air quality. The voluntary agreements will improve by 25% against 1995 levels the CO ₂ emissions from new cars sold in the EU by 2008. This will be achieved in three main ways: switching from petrol to diesel engines, reduced car sizes and the introduction of more efficient technology. Although the first of these may be detrimental to air quality, the other two should help to reduce NO _x and PM ₁₀ emissions. However, the trend of declining emissions is expected to slow down considerably from about 2010 as engine and fuel improvements are offset by continuing traffic growth (see page 88 of the Air Quality Strategy).

6.7 To make sure that vehicles do not produce excessive emissions when in use, new vehicle standards are backed up by emissions checks as part of the annual MOT test. The Vehicle Inspectorate also carries out a programme of vehicle emissions checks each year in addition to their roadworthiness enforcement programme. To improve emissions performance still further, all new vehicles will be required to be fitted with on board diagnostic systems (from 2005), which will immediately alert the driver to any irregularities in the vehicle's emissions.

6.8 The Scottish Executive intends to introduce the Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions)(Fixed Penalty)(Scotland) Regulations 2002 to allow local authorities to adopt powers for undertaking vehicle emissions testing at the roadside. These powers will be optional, but will provide authorities with a useful additional tool for addressing air quality issues in their areas. Guidance will be issued on how to operate the scheme once it comes into effect.

Tax based measures

6.9 The UK Government continues to use tax-based measures to reduce vehicle emissions. These include:

• Fuel duty differentials to encourage people to use cleaner fuels, including alternative fuels such as bio diesel, compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). The UK Government continues to set lower rates of duty on sales of ultra low sulphur diesel compared to conventional diesel. From 2003, a duty incentive for sulphur free fuel will be introduced;

• Since 1 April 2001, Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) has been graduated according to levels of CO ₂ emissions, with the least polluting paying less in road tax;

• A similar CO ₂ based system for taxing company cars has been in place since April 2002, linking the tax charge on the benefit of a company car to the level of its CO ₂ emissions. This is intended to incentivise the purchase of more efficient vehicles; and

• VED concessions on buses and lorries. In December 2001, the UK Government implemented a new VED structure for goods vehicles, reflecting more closely the environmental impacts and road wear that different types of goods vehicles cause. The Reduced Pollution concession, under which goods vehicles and buses meeting stringent standards for particulate emissions pay a lower rate of VED, continues in force. Further discounts under both the company car tax and VED regimes are available for alternatively powered vehicles such as electric, hybrid and LPG/CNG.

6.10 The majority of these measures have been aimed primarily at tackling CO ₂ emissions, one of the major greenhouse gases contributing towards climate change. However, air quality considerations have also been taken into account and it is expected that the measures will benefit local air quality by encouraging the purchase of cleaner, more efficient vehicles.

Transport Delivery Report

6.11 The Scottish Executive's Transport Delivery Report, Scotland's Transport: Delivering Improvements, sets out a strategy for tackling traffic congestion over the next 10-15 years. The Delivery Report outlines the key challenges facing government, the policy tools at the Executive's disposal and a range of priority projects aimed at tackling the challenges. Improvements to public transport and encouraging modal shift away from private vehicles are priorities.

Road Traffic Reduction Act

6.12 The Road Traffic Reduction Act 1997 requires local traffic authorities to review and report on existing and forecast levels of traffic on local roads. The Scottish Executive's primary transport objective, as outlined in the Transport Delivery Report, is to tackle urban and inter-urban road traffic congestion and to stabilise traffic growth at 2001 levels by 2021. The Executive is currently letting a contract for consultancy work essential to the furtherance of Local Transport Strategy and Road Traffic Reduction Act initiatives (begun in partnership with local authorities in 2001), which will contribute to the achievement of this primary objective.

6.13 By assessing earlier work on Local Transport Strategies and Road Traffic Reduction Act reports and by consulting Scottish local authorities widely on a regional basis - first those authorities in the four main city regions of Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh and Glasgow, with remaining authorities following later - the project will help to facilitate more effective, challenging and realistic target setting by local authorities. This in turn will assist in tackling urban and inter-urban congestion.

Transport (Scotland) Act 2001

6.14 The Transport (Scotland) Act came into force in January 2001. The provisions of the Act are arranged in five Parts:

• Part I - Joint Transport Strategies.

• Part II - Bus Services.

• Part III - Road User Charging.

• Parts IV and V? Miscellaneous and Supplementary, containing various measures not related to the other main Parts of the Act, and also the usual supplementary provisions including the territorial extent, and short title of the Act.

The key elements relevant to local authorities' LAQM duties are contained in parts I, II & III of the Act.

Promoting cleaner fuels: Powershift Programme

6.15 To encourage the sustainable market for clean fuel vehicles, the Scottish Executive funds the Energy Saving Trust's Powershift Programme and associated autogas+ Programme in Scotland. The Powershift Programme contributes towards the additional cost of purchasing gas or electric vehicles that offer emissions advantages over their petrol and diesel equivalents. Under autogas+ a wide range of petrol engine vehicles are eligible for grants towards the cost of conversion to run on LPG. To find out more about the grants available, contact the autogas+ hotline on 0870 240 6296 or the Powershift hotline on 0845 602 1425. Alternatively, access the Powershift website at http://www.est-powershift.org.uk

6.16 There are now more than 100 LPG refuelling points throughout Scotland. Local authorities could encourage the development of a refuelling/recharging infrastructure, and promote the use of cleaner fuels by local businesses, organisations and their own fleets where such an infrastructure exists.

Air Transport White Paper

6.17 The White Paper, New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone, published in July 1998, announced the UK Government's intention to produce a new UK-wide airports policy that would provide the policy context for aviation for the next 30 years, and referred to the need to bring forward new policies on civil aviation to address this challenge. This work will be brought together in a new Air Transport White Paper. The UK Department of Transport issued six Regional Consultation Documents (RCDs) in July 2002 covering Scotland, Wales and four English "air service" regions. An RCD for Northern Ireland followed in August. ⁷ The RCDs examine a range of scenarios, ranging from no development other than that already included in the planning system, to additional runway and terminal capacity to meet increased passenger/freight demand up to 2030. The consultation responses will feed into the White Paper, The Future of Air Transport in the UK, which is to be published in 2003.

Emissions from shipping

6.18 Emissions from shipping can be an issue for local authorities with major ports. Also, as emissions from other sources decline, global emissions from shipping are becoming more and more significant, with this source expected to account for 60% of total SO ₂ emissions in the EU by 2010.

6.19 Currently only marine gas oils used for voyages within the EU are regulated by the Sulphur Content of Liquid Fuels Directive 99/32/EC. The maximum sulphur limit for these fuels since 1 July 2000 has been 0.2%. This will be reduced to 0.1% from 1 January 2008.

6.20 Shipping is a global industry and efforts to reduce emissions are most effective when agreed and implemented at an international level. Annex VI to MARPOL 73/78 is an International Maritime Organisation (IMO) agreement which aims to prevent and reduce air pollution from ships. It was adopted in September 1997. The agreement, when it comes into force, will set limits on sulphur oxide (SO _x) and NO _x emissions from ship exhausts, and prohibit deliberate emissions of ozone depleting substances. The agreement will set a global sulphur cap of 4.5% by mass for all heavy marine bunker fuels, and a 1.5% cap by mass for fuels burnt in special SO _x Emission Control Areas. Alternatively, ships must fit an exhaust gas cleaning system or use any other technological method to limit SO _x emissions in these areas.

6.21 The agreement also sets limits on NO _x emissions from diesel engines. As NO _x emissions from shipping are primarily from engines, the MARPOL Annex provides a mandatory technical specification for ship engines manufactured since 1 January 2000. The UK has not yet ratified the Annex, which enters into force internationally one year after it has been ratified by at least 15 countries representing together 50% of the gross tonnage of the world's merchant shipping.

6.22 The failure of EU member states except Sweden to ratify the Annex, together with the potential impact of SO _x and particulate emissions on local air quality in port areas, has caused concern at an EU level. In response, a proposal to reduce sulphur content of all marine fuels used in the Baltic and North Seas, and prohibit the use of high sulphur fuel in port areas, is expected from the Commission in the near future.

Local transport measures

6.23 Traffic management and other local transport schemes are likely to be key elements in any air quality action plan or local air quality strategy. This section summarises and gives an update on some of the measures available to local authorities.

Local Transport Strategies

6.24 Local Transport Strategies are significant for LAQM as they set out local authorities' plans and priorities for the development of an integrated transport policy within their area of responsibility. They cover all forms of local authority provided transport and set out how authorities plan to tackle the associated problems, including those related to poor air quality. Among other things, Strategies may contain any proposals to utilise the road user charging powers, promote Green Transport Plans, and provide the context for Quality Bus Partnerships and walking and cycling strategies. The Scottish Executive considers it important that air quality action plans and local air quality strategies are consistent with, and where appropriate linked to, Local Transport Strategies.

Road user charging

6.25 The Transport (Scotland) Act 2001 introduced discretionary powers for local authorities to bring in road user charging schemes. All the revenue raised by charging schemes will be recycled locally. These powers will therefore create a new, additional source of income to fund improvements to local transport. Before any schemes can be introduced, local authorities will have to demonstrate that they have improved public transport in advance to ensure that people have good alternatives to car use. The only Scottish local authority to express interest in this measure to date is the City of Edinburgh Council, which has recently completed a public consultation exercise on its proposals.

Traffic regulation

6.26 Sections 1, 6 and 9 of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984 (RTRA) give traffic authorities extensive powers to make traffic regulation orders (TROs). These can prohibit, restrict or regulate traffic or particular types of vehicle. They may apply to part of a road, a single road, or a number of roads. They may be in force all the time or only for specified periods. Traffic authorities may exempt some classes of vehicle or permit holders.
6.27 Paragraph 36 of Schedule 22 to the 1995 Act extended powers for making TROs to include pursuit of the air quality objectives outlined in the Air Quality Strategy. TROs made on air quality grounds cannot normally restrict access to premises for more than eight hours in any 24. Schedule 22 also ensures that authorities must take explicit account of the Air Quality Strategy when using their traffic regulatory powers.
6.28 Authorities need to plan restrictions carefully and they should be fully and accurately signed, preferably indicating suitable alternative routes. Otherwise restrictions may generate congestion and pollution elsewhere on the network. Authorities may need to begin signing alternative routes well before the restriction comes into effect, depending on road layout. Signs should give advance notice of a restriction where prohibited vehicles can divert with minimal inconvenience. They may also need to be supplemented by physical barriers or someone to enforce the restriction, particularly if there is no suitable alternative route.

6.29 A Traffic Management and Air Quality (TRAMAQ) report, Traffic Management During High Pollution Episodes was completed in 2001 and a summary report was published in January 2002. The conclusions of this project were that the legal and practical aspects of introducing pollution responsive techniques do not present significant hurdles for local authorities, although the staff resource aspects, costs and political acceptability are likely to do so. Whilst some theoretical improvements in air quality are likely to be achieved with the most restrictive episode-response measures, the efforts and costs involved would outweigh any benefits. However, some of the measures featured in the report could usefully and economically be used as more permanent measures to help improve local air quality.

Low Emission Zones

6.30 A Low Emission Zone (LEZ) allows only vehicles meeting minimum emissions standards to enter pollution hotspots in towns and cities. The main purpose of a LEZ is to improve air quality, though it may deliver additional congestion and quality of life benefits by reducing traffic noise and overall traffic volume. No LEZs have been introduced in Scotland to date.

6.31 The NSCA's Cleaner Transport Forum has proposed a LEZ entry standard based on established European emission standards, which it plans to consult widely on. The aim of such a standard would be to:

• encourage local authorities to implement LEZs in a consistent way, so that transport operators would not be faced with a range of standards in different areas;

• enable operators to plan new vehicle orders with greater confidence; and

• allow operators to use their vehicles across the country without having to apply for a number of passes or permits.

Home Zones

6.32 Home Zones are residential streets in which the road space is shared between drivers of motor vehicles and other road users, with the wider needs of residents (including people who walk and cycle, and children) in mind. The aim is to change the way that streets are used and to improve the quality of life in residential streets by making them places for people, not just for traffic. The concept of Home Zones is being trialled in the UK, with four pilot projects under way in Scotland, together with eight in England and one each in Wales and Northern Ireland. Home Zones (Scotland) Regulations came into force on 1 July 2002. These made provisions as to the procedures that local authorities have to follow prior to designating any road in their area as a Home Zone. In August 2002 the Scottish Executive published a Home Zones Guidance consultation document. The Guidance was designed for immediate practical use, providing assistance to Scottish local authorities on how to implement a Home Zone.

Clear Zones

6.33 The UK Government's Clear Zones initiative is designed to encourage solutions to traffic problems in towns and cities while making sure town centres retain their vitality.

Access restriction

6.34 Local authorities can use the Roads (Traffic Calming) (Scotland) Regulations 1994 to create narrow 'gateways' to urban centres. This technique may discourage car access to particular areas, as long as there are suitable alternative routes for through traffic. But if traffic had to queue at the gateway, there could be an increase in local emissions. Authorities could use the same technique at the entrance to bypassed communities to discourage drivers from taking a short cut. Authorities may not, however, use traffic calming techniques by themselves to prevent access by any class of vehicle - this requires a TRO.

Traffic calming

6.35 The Roads (Traffic Calming) (Scotland) Regulations 1994 and the Road Humps (Scotland) Regulations 1998 allow authorities to introduce a wide range of physical measures to slow traffic. Traffic calming schemes not only have the direct effect of slowing vehicles, but also the indirect effect of deterring traffic from using residential roads as a short cut. It is important that traffic authorities design schemes to encourage a smooth driving style that avoids repeated acceleration and deceleration. The spacing between each calming feature, whether vertical or horizontal deflections, will greatly influence driving style. Spacing of between 40m and 90m should provide the smoothest flow. The UK Department for Transport and the Scottish Executive issue guidance on the technical aspects of traffic calming schemes.

Reallocation of road space

6.36 Authorities may also make TROs to introduce bus or cycle lanes. Conventional with-flow bus lanes, with setbacks at signal-controlled junctions, will normally have less of an effect on junction capacity than contra-flow lanes. Reallocating space to buses and cycles can make these forms of transport more attractive. Authorities can also create advisory cycle lanes (which would not require TROs), but these might not be as effective. Authorities must be careful not to increase congestion and pollution when reducing capacity, particularly during the short term while travel patterns adjust.

High occupancy vehicle lanes

6.37 A significant proportion of vehicles contains only one occupant. This is particularly so during peak periods. High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes are, in principle, a means of using the road network more efficiently and encouraging car sharing. Traffic authorities can make a TRO to authorise them. They can introduce HOV lanes by creating an additional lane or by converting an existing one. HOV lanes might, in some circumstances, be able to share bus lanes. There has been no use of HOV lanes to date in Scotland, and little experience elsewhere in the UK, but they may be an appropriate measure to reduce traffic levels, with a consequent reduction in emissions, on some road networks. Effective enforcement of HOV lanes also requires careful consideration.

Pedestrian/vehicle restricted areas

6.38 An authority may wish to restrict access to a road or area to some or all vehicles at different times of the day. The Environment Act 1995 added 'improving air quality' as a reason for making TROs under the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984. Where there are objections to an order which would have the effect of restricting or prohibiting access outside peak hours, the local authority would first need to hold a public enquiry. The reason for restricting vehicle access may be to create a pedestrianised area. Typically these allow vehicular access for all or some parts of the day. In any case, authorities will need to ensure that delivery and service vehicles have suitable access.

6.39 Restricting access to town centres has been shown to improve the local environment. There are plenty of examples of pedestrianisation schemes that have maintained or improved local economic activity. But this does not happen automatically - people must still be able to get to the area by other means. These could include:

• good public transport, perhaps with park and ride;

• facilities for cyclists and pedestrians;

• peripheral car parking;

• access for people with limited mobility; and

• access for taxis, where appropriate.

Parking controls

6.40 A big influence on whether people drive is whether they can park. The RTRA permits local authorities to determine where motorists can park and how much it will cost them. They may also restrict parking in other ways. Residents' parking schemes, for example, can be a good way of encouraging non-residents to find other ways of travelling into town centres. Authorities can also use the planning process to regulate the amount of private non-residential parking (PNR) associated with a new development.

6.41 Parking restrictions need the right level of enforcement. Effective enforcement of parking restrictions allows more efficient use of existing parking provision and can improve parking flow as drivers have to spend less time finding a parking space. The Road Traffic Act 1991 provided for the decriminalisation of most non-endorsable parking offences. Decriminalisation transfers responsibility for enforcing most parking restrictions from traffic wardens to parking attendants employed by the local authority and funded out of revenue received from penalty charges and from paid parking. This gives local authorities greater control over enforcement.

6.42 A TRAMAQ project which concluded in January 2001 investigated the effects of cold starts on various parking regimes. This developed a model, based on the thermal condition of a vehicle, to predict the emissions produced by cold running. The model is intended as a tool for helping local authorities evaluate the effects of traffic management schemes (particularly parking) schemes on air quality. The model, user guide and report are all available at: http://www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airquality/reports/tramaq

Traffic control systems

6.43 Before doing anything to improve traffic flow, highway authorities should think carefully about what to do with the road capacity they will release. Authorities should consider re-distributing it in favour of buses, cyclists and pedestrians. Where signals control junctions, a SCOOT ⁸ traffic control system, which responds automatically to changing conditions, will give better traffic flow than an older Urban Traffic Control system and a much better flow than uncoordinated signals.

6.44 SCOOT systems can hold queues outside an area when congestion exceeds a pre-set threshold. Overall journey times might well remain similar, but drivers would queue for longer while approaching the area, then make faster progress through it. This method may be appropriate if the queue is where relatively few people are exposed to any increased emissions.

6.45 When a SCOOT system detects buses, either through an accurate automatic vehicle location system, or by transponders and special loops, it can give them priority. This cuts delay to buses and makes bus journey times more predictable, although it does not help as much as dedicated bus lanes.

6.46 Where co-ordinated traffic signal operation is not required, traffic signals will operate in an isolated control mode. Isolated operation can provide quicker responses to rapidly changing traffic conditions and reduce unnecessary delays, particularly during quiet periods. A SCOOT or Urban Traffic Control system may revert to isolated operation at night. If the signals are to operate efficiently, it is important that the relevant vehicle detectors are installed and working correctly. Traffic signal controllers incorporating the MOVA (Microprocessor Optimised Vehicle Actuation) control strategy can improve flows and reduce delays at traffic signal controlled junctions.

6.47 Other traffic management measures may also help improve traffic flow at junctions, such as TROs to ban right turns, with traffic signs reinforced in some cases by physical measures. Introducing parking restrictions can reduce exit blocking at junctions.

Speed limits

6.48 Local authorities can set speed limits by making orders under the RTRA. Reducing maximum speeds is likely to do more to improve flow and capacity on roads outside towns and cities than in urban areas, but it may still have some benefit.

6.49 Some authorities have piloted experimental variable mandatory speed limits on road safety grounds. For instance, some authorities have cut speed limits outside schools from 30mph to 20mph when children are arriving or departing. These very low speeds are unlikely to reduce emissions significantly, however, and may actually increase emissions of some pollutants. However, traffic calmed 20mph zones have proved to be very effective in reducing road traffic casualties. Local traffic authorities no longer have to get consent from the Scottish Ministers for 20mph speed limits and zones.

Public Transport

Rail

6.50 Rail-based park and ride depends on there being enough secure off-street parking at stations. Authorities will also have to consider the capacity of the road network around the station. A further issue is that informal rail-based park and ride can lead to conflict between commuters and residents and increased illegal or inconsiderate parking. Local authorities may need to boost enforcement efforts to deal with these side effects.

Buses

6.51 Buses are essential to integrated transport, but effective local traffic management measures may be necessary to encourage people to use them, thereby increasing modal shift from private cars to buses and cutting bus emissions by reducing stop-start driving. Such measures are likely to reallocate road space to buses and give them priority in congested areas. Other measures such as better information and interchange and waiting facilities are important too in making public transport a natural choice over the car.

6.52 The Transport (Scotland) Act 2001 contains provision for bus Quality Partnerships between local authorities and bus operators, which also have a role in improving local air quality. The local authority agrees to introduce bus lanes or invest in other infrastructure to improve bus service provision. In return the bus operator, or operators, may agree to improve services by for example using new, accessible, low emission buses. Enforcement of any such improvements is important in ensuring that maximum benefit is obtained. Local authorities might also wish to talk to the local police force about enforcement of the bus lanes. In addition, the 2001 Act contains powers to introduce civil penalties for bus lane contraventions. Authorities that operate a decriminalised parking regime may want to consider the use of these new powers.

Park and ride

6.53 Local authorities need to design park and ride schemes carefully and should see them as just one measure in an integrated transport policy. Without complementary measures such as reductions in town centre parking or pedestrianisation, park and ride is unlikely to affect town centre traffic levels, and may simply add to the number of people entering the town. Park and ride with a dedicated bus service may result in fewer cars on the urban network, but more buses. This may, in some cases, increase overall emissions of some pollutants (especially particles) in town centres. Park and ride schemes will generally be most successful where:

• they are some distance from the town centre, ideally where radial and orbital routes intersect;

• the town centre is served by a number of high quality sites on the outskirts, with lighting, staff, information for users and CCTV; and

• bus priority measures complement park and ride services, while cars are restricted in the town centre.

HGVs

6.54 HGVs are required to meet Euro standards and their emissions are regularly tested. In many areas, HGVs can account for a high percentage of total road transport emissions and authorities may wish to consider measures such as freight quality partnerships to tackle this. Authorities can also encourage local HGV operators to apply for grants from the Scottish Executive under the Powershift Programme.

Airports

6.55 Airports operators are responsible for setting up Airport Transport Forums (ATFs), the objective of which is to improve public transport access to airports. They are also responsible for preparing airport surface access strategies (ASAS), which feed into Local Transport Strategies. ASAs should include challenging short and long term targets for increasing the proportion of journeys made to airports by public transport, strategies to achieve these targets and system to oversee implementation of the strategy. ATFs should include representatives from local authorities, transport operators, local people and other interested parties.

Walking

6.56 The Scottish Executive recognises that walking has an important part to play in an integrated, safe and sustainable transport policy, and recognises also the value of walking in terms of health and the environment. Walking instead of taking the car, for example on a short journey to the shops, will help to reduce vehicle emissions. To achieve its aim of making walking a safer, easier and more pleasant experience for everyone, the Executive is in the process of preparing a walking strategy for Scotland. The strategy is intended to inform and influence policy makers in the fields of transport, education, health and social exclusion, but its target audience will include all who have an interest in promoting walking as a leisure pursuit. It is planned to publish the strategy early in 2003.

Cycling

6.57 The National Cycling Strategy was launched in 1996 and was endorsed by the Scottish Executive following devolution in 1999. The Strategy aims to establish a culture favourable to the increased use of cycles by all age groups, to develop sound policies and good practice, and to seek out innovative and effective means of fostering accessibility by bike. It has a central target to quadruple the number of journeys made by bike between 1996 and 2012. The Scottish Executive encourages local authorities to develop (or update) local cycling strategies as part of their Local Transport Strategies. As with walking, more trips made by bike rather than by car will help to reduce vehicle emissions.

Safer routes to school

6.58 The aim of this initiative is to encourage more children to walk, cycle or take public transport to and from school, rather than being driven by car. Not only will this bring real improvements to children's' health in the context of increased physical activity, but it will also bring about reductions in congestion and pollution. The Scottish Executive published How to Run a Safer Route to School Scheme in December 1999. This is a toolkit of measures for use by all those involved in the school run. It builds on experience in Scotland and provides practical advice to children, parents, teachers, local authorities, the police and transport operators about the role they can play, either individually or in partnership with others in setting up and implementing a safer routes scheme.

Motorcycling

6.59 Mopeds and motorcycles can be an alternative means of getting about when public transport is limited and walking unrealistic. They have some air quality advantages over cars, as they help cut congestion and their engines are small and usually fuel-efficient. On the other hand, their emissions are unregulated and they do not usually have catalytic converters. Stricter emission standards for motorcycles have been agreed to come into force by 1 July 2004, but only for new bikes. Furthermore, motorcycles can only carry one or at most two people and their emissions and fuel consumption per passenger may not match the most fuel-efficient cars. There are also concerns about noise and safety.

6.60 Traffic authorities should consider motorcycles alongside other alternatives to the private car. Potential motorcyclists are often discouraged by a lack of secure parking. Local authorities may wish to provide dedicated motorcycle spaces in car parks.

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